THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


STANDARD  EDITION 


THE  LIBRARY 
OP 

HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS 

OP 

ALL  NATIONS  AND  ALL  AGES 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 

uoa  AfiCKuEs,  can. 


THE  Lirjf.  ftjs  BOOK. 


STANDARD  EDITION 


THE  LIBRARY 


OF 


HISTORIC  CHARACTERS 


AND 


FAMOUS  EVENTS 


OF  ALL  NATIONS  AND  ALL  AQES 


EDITED  BY 

A.  R.  SPOFFORD,  Librarian  of  Congress,  Washington,  D.  C. 

FRANK  WEITENKAMPF,  Astor  Library,  New  York 

and  PROFESSOR  J.  P.  LAMBERTON 

/  0801 


Illustrated  with  100  Photogravures  from  Paintings  by  the  World's  Great  Artiste 


COMPLETE  IN  TEN  VOLUMES 
VOLUME  I 


PHILADELPHIA 

ART-LIBRARY  PUBLISHING  CO. 
1897 

141901 


Copyright,  1894, 
By  WH.UAM  FINI.EY  &  Co. 


Copyright,  1897, 
By  ART-LIBRARY  PUBLISHING  Co. 


Press  of 
Thejw.  B.  Rodgers  Printing  Co. 

Philadelphia. 


55G1 


D  <o 
S  ?G 
v*  \ 


THIS  LIBRARY 

OF 
HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS 

IS  DEDICATED  TO 

ITbe  people  of  Bmerica, 

WHOSE  INTELLIGENT  DEMAND  FOR  INFORMATION 

OF  THE 

ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  THE  PAST  AND 
THE  LEADERS  OF  THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS 

KEEPS  EVEN  PACE  WITH 
THEIR  OWN  MARVELOUS  GROWTH 

AND 
FULFILLMENT  OF  DESTINY. 


PUBLISHERS'  PREFACE. 


ft^/j^""  ~^HE  rapid  growth  of  large  collections  of  books, 
J^kttllitw^  public  and  private,  has  compelled  all  classes  to 
recognize  the  necessity  of  selecting  and  con- 
densing from  these  vast  treasuries  of  knowledge. 
Standard  histories  must  be  re-examined,  both 
with  reference  to  the  importance  of  the  events 
and  the  excellence  of  the  narrative.  A  large 
part  of  the  most  famous  works  loses  its  interest 
by  lapse  of  time  or  the  progress  of  enlightenment,  while  a 
smaller  part,  from  its  intrinsic  merit,  steadily  increases  in  value. 
Certain  events  and  certain  characters  become  more  conspicuous 
by  their  true  grandeur,  while  others,  which  were  deemed  their 
rivals,  sink  into  insignificance. 

It  has  been  proposed  in  the  present  Library  of  Historic  Char- 
acters and  Famous  Events  to  select  from  the  records  of  the 
K)  world's  progress  such  personages  and  such  facts  as  have  a  valid 
..Q   and  pre-eminent  claim  for  remembrance  by  the  people  of  the 
»    present  day.     The  careers  of  these  chosen  leaders  are  sketched 
^J-  by  the  editors,  with  the  aid  of  the  best  historians  and  biographers, 
r\  whether  of  ancient  or  modern  times.     The  facts  are  condensed 
V}    into  a  brief  compass,  so  as  easily  to  be  grasped  and  retained, 
while  care  has  been  taken  to  make  them  readable  and  attractive. 
U    Each  biographical  sketch  serves  also  as  an  introduction  to  the 
description  of  the  most  famous  event  or  prominent  period  in  the 
career  of  the  historic  personage   selected.      This  more  copious 
narrative  is  judiciously  culled  from  the  distinguished  historian 
or  other  writer  who  has  treated  it  in  the  most  graphic  style. 
To  the  sketches  of  distinguished  orators  have  been  appended 
choice  specimens  of  their  eloquence,  as  being  their  chief  and 
indisputable  title  to  fame. 

The  combination  and  contrast  of  characters  and  events  is 

3 


4  PUBLISHERS'    PREFACE. 

intended  to  impress  upon  the  minds  of  readers  more  strongly  and 
permanently  the  really  important  facts  of  history.  It  has  not  been 
considered  necessary,  however,  to  present  these  in  chronological 
order.  Each  volume  will  contain  selections  from  ancient,  medi- 
aeval and  modern  history,  from  American  as  well  as  European 
and  Asiatic  history.  This  variety,  it  is  hoped,  will  assist  in 
stimulating  the  interest  of  readers  and  may  serve  to  gratify 
their  varying  moods.  But  in  the  conclusion  of  the  work  full 
chronological  tables  will  be  presented,  and  an  ample  index  will 
enable  any  person  consulting  it  to  obtain  needed  information 
in  regard  to  every  part  of  history. 

While  prominent  characters  thus  form  the  staple  of  the  work, 
some  minor  characters  have  been  described,  whose  connection 
with  some  famous  event  or  whose  personal  picturesqueness  has 
given  them  a  special  claim  to  recognition. 

The  Publishers  take  pleasure  in  calling  attention  to  the  artistic 
illustrations  of  this  work.  The  photogravures  have  been  exe- 
cuted in  the  most  careful  manner  from  the  most  approved  paint- 
ings of  eminent  artists.  Their  excellence  will,  it  is  hoped, 
enhance  the  historic  value  as  well  as  the  artistic  merit  of  this 
library,  making  it  a  delightful  Gallery  of  Scenes  as  well  as  an 
instructive  record  of  events.  Portraits  derived  from  ancient 
coins,  medals  and  other  authentic  sources,  have  been  used  in 
connection  with  many  biographical  sketches. 

The  Publishers  have  earnestly  endeavored  to  present  this 
library  of  Historic  Characters  and  Famous  Events  in  a  style 
worthy  of  its  valuable  contents.  Special  pains  have  been  taken 
in  regard  to  the  typography  and  paper,  as  well  as  the  illus- 
trations. 

We  therefore  feel  justified  in  commending  this  work  to  intel- 
ligent Americans  as  most  worthy  of  a  place  in  their  homes,  as  a 
collection  deserving  to  be  perused  and  studied  by  old  and  young, 
and  certain  to  give  gratification  to  refined  taste  and  love  of  culture, 
and  to  afford  abundant  information  to  all  seekers  after  knowledge. 


LIST  OF  CONTENTS. 

VOLUME   I. 


PAGE 

THE  IDEAL  LIBRARY 9 

INTRODUCTION 13 

^  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT 17 

The  Battle  of  Arbela 21 

LYCURGUS 29 

Laconic  Speech 31 

EPAMINONDAS 33 

The  Battle  of  Leuctra 35 

CHARLES  MARTEL 39 

The  Battle  of  Tours 42 

VWILLIAM  THE  CONQUEROR 47 

The  Battle  of  Hastings 49 

EDWARD  III 55 

The  Battle  of  Crecy 56 

The  Battle  of  Poitiers 58 

y  SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH 62 

Eldorado  and  the  Death  of  Raleigh 66 

D  DE  SOTO. 70 

•'.e  Discovery  of  the  Mississippi 71 

76 

• '  Innefeld  in  the  Teutoburger-  IVald 79 

minius 8l 

ROM;.      • 83 

e  Rape  of  the  Sabine  Virgins 85 

ULLIUS  CICERO 91 

...    'era  against  Verres 96 

Cicero  against  Mark  Antony 97 

iYKtis  THK  GREAT 100 

"US'   Capture  of  Babylon IO2 

SON IO5 

5 


6                                  LIST  OF  CONTENTS. 
PERICLES 

Oration, "The  True  Glory  of  Athens" 112 

Pericles  and  Aspasia 117 

^    PHIDIAS 119 

DARIUS 122 

CHARLES  THE  BOLD. 126 

The  Invasion  of  Switzerland 129 

J_    OLIVER  CROMWELL J37^ 

The  Battle  of  Naseby 142 

Cromwell  before  the  Dead  Body  of  Charles  I. I48_ 

HENRY  HUDSON 150 

The  Discovery  of  the  Hudson  River 152 

SAMUEL  DE  CHAMPLAIN .^ 164 

Discovery  of  Lake  Champlain 166 

GENERAL  ISRAEL  PUTNAM 171 

The  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill 174 

GENERAL  NATHANIEL  GREENE 181 

The  Battle  of  Guilford  Court- House 183 

The  Battle  of  Eutaw 190 

GENERAL  DANIEL  MORGAN 193 

The  Battle  of  Cowpens 195 

GENERAL  FRANCIS  MARION 201 

The  Swamp  Fox 203 

RAMSES  II 211 

Pentaur's  Egyptian  Epic 215 

»  SOLON 219 

Solon  and  Crcesus .  221 

The  Constitution  of  Athens 224 

.LEONIDAS  AT  THERMOPYLAE 225 

The  Spartan's  Oath 227 

*  XERXES 228 

The  Flight  of  Xerxes 230 

THEMISTOCLES 232 

The  Sea-Fight  of  Salamis 236 

•*  DEMOSTHENES 244 

Demosthenes  against  Philip 247 

PHOCION 251 

Phocion's  Sayings   .   „ .55 

\  ALFRED  THE  GREAT 259 

N^  Alfred's   Triumph  over  Guthrum 263     <. 


IJST  OF  CONTENTS.  7 

PAGK 

SIR  FRANCIS  DRAKE 268 

Drake  at  San  Francisco 271 

Drake  at  St.  Augustine 274 

FATHER  MARQUETTE 277 

Marquette's  Voyage  down  the  Mississippi 279 

JQHN  WlNTHROP 288 

The  Colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay 291 

GENERAL  ANTHONY  WAYNE 295 

The  Capture  of  Stony  Point 298 

MlI/TIADBS 301 

The  Battle  of  Marathon 304 

PAUSANIAS 311 

The  Battle  of  Plataiai 313 

LOUIS  XV 320 

Death  of  Louis  XV. 323 

THE  GRACCHI 329 

Cornelia  the  Mother  of  the  Gracchi 336 

JUSTINIAN 339 

Reform  of  Roman  Law  by  Justinian 341 

BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN 346 

Franklin 's  Diplomacy .  .    .    .  " 355 

Louis  IX i  »  » 361 

The  Egyptian  Crusade  of  St.  Louis 365 

LADY  JANE  GREY  . •?  ^y  ';.»-^\J •;£.•  •  371 

Wyafs  Insurrection 373 

HUGH  CAPET 379 

The  Year  One  Thousand 381 

SCIPIO  AFRICANUS 386 

Scipio  Conquers  Hannibal 389 

PWNY 393 

The  First  Eruption  of  Vesuvius 396 


LIST  OF  PHOTOGRAVURE  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

VOLUME  I. 


ARTIST.  PAGE 

LIBRARIAN  SPOFFORD C.  M.  Bell ....  Frontispiece 

ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT A,  Tholey 17 

WILLIAM  THE  CONQUEROR S.  J,  Ferris 47 

HERMANN A.  Tholey 76 

LEIF  ERICSON  DISCOVERING  AMERICA  .  .  C.  Krohg 105 

CROMWELL  IN  WHITEHALL J-  Schrader 137 

GENERAL  PUTNAM  AT  BUNKER  HILL  .  •  •  J-  L.  G.  Ferris 171 

DEMOSTHENES Lecomte  du  Nouy 244 

Louis  XV  AND  MME.  Du  BARRY B.  Gyula 323 

FRANKWN  AT  HOME H,  Bacon 346 


9-2.0-  /  f 


THE  IDEAL  LIBRARY. 


3TIBRARIES,  it  has  truly  been  said,  imply  an  ad- 
vanced and  elaborate  civilization.  The  earliest 
libraries  in  the  history  of  the  world  were  at- 
tached to  temples,  and  the  librarians  were  the 
priests.  The  modern  librarian  who  is  worthy 
of  the  name  still  holds  a  sacred  character. 
He  is  the  guardian  of  priceless  treasures,  conse- 
crated to  the  preservation  and  presentation  of 
truth.  Withdrawn  from  the  bustle  of  street 
and  market,  he  is  raised  by  his  elevated  position  above  the  con- 
flict of  opinions,  the  clashing  of  parties,  the  fluctuations  of  events, 
the  revolutions  of  nations.  He  preserves  for  the  use  of  the  present 
and  future  generations  the  records  of  the  past,  the  memorials  of 
all  the  achievements  and  aspirations  of  men. 

The  duty  of  a  custodian  of  a  large  library  is  not  merely  to 
receive  and  store  away  the  books  and  documents  entrusted  to 
him.  He  must  so  arrange  them  that,  when  desired  again  for 
examination,  they  shall  be  forthcoming  at  the  instant.  He  must 
gauge  their  contents  and  literary  merits  so  that  they  may  take 
their  appropriate  places  with  their  associates.  To  him  therefore 
resort  those  who  need  to  use  these  heaped-up  treasures — the 
student  of  literature,  the  historian,  the  statesman,  the  man  of 
affairs,  the  man  of  science,  the  philosopher,  every  seeker  after 
truth  and  fact  and  fiction.  "  What  record  have  you  of  what  the 
world  has  done  in  my  department?  What  event,  what  invention, 
what  noble  saying,  what  great  deed,  what  inspired  prophecy, 
what  grand  imagination,  has  been  registered  that  I  need  to  know 
to-day  ?  Bring  forth  the  writings  of  the  imaginative  poets,  the 
profound  philosophers,  the  great  historians,  the  faithful  depicters 
of  human  life  in  drama  and  novel.  Help  me  to  recall  the 
eloquence  of  the  great  orators  of  Greece  and  Rome,  of  France, 
and  England  and  America.  In  whose  writings,  in  what  volume 

9 


IO  THE   IDEAL   LIBRARY. 

can  I  find  what  bears  directly  on  my  present  work,  be  it  political 
or  poetical,  industrial  or  social?"  The  question  may  be  more 
general : . ' '  What  will  inform  my  mind,  refresh  and  elevate  my 
soul,  delight  my  fancy,  transport  me  to  a  new  world  of  thought 
or  action?"  Or  it  maybe  more  particular:  "Where  is  the  best 
description  of  Julius  Caesar  or  Kubla  Khan,  of  ancient  Babylon  or 
modern  Paris,  of  remote  Pekin  or  mythical  Atlantis  ? ' '  Such  are 
the  heterogeneous  requests  and  demands  made  daily  and  hourly 
upon  the  keeper  of  these  treasures.  To  respond  to  these  calls,  to 
answer  these  various  questioners,  some  precise  and  exact,  others 
vague  and  misty,  requires  mind  of  high  order,  well  trained  by 
ample  experience  of  books  and  men  and  human  needs  of  all  kinds. 

No  man  in  America  is  better  qualified  to  meet  this  avalanche 
of  interrogatories,  to  satisfy  and  gratify  these  multitudinous 
seekers  after  intellectual  pabulum  than  the  present  Librarian  of 
Congress— AINSWORTH  RAND  SPOFFORD. 

Like  most  Americans  he  has  had  experience  of  other  occupa- 
tions before  settling  down  to  his  special  life-work.  Born  at  Gil- 
manton,  New  Hampshire,  in  1825,  he  received  an  academic  educa- 
tion, but  was  prevented  by  weak  health  from  entering  college. 
In  early  manhood  he  removed  to  Cincinnati,  and  there  became 
a  bookseller  and  publisher,  and  after  some  years  an  editor  of  a 
daily  paper.  The  great  uprising  at  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war 
carried  him  to  Washington,  and  there  he  soon  found  his  proper 
place  in  the  Congressional  Library.  He  was  made  chief  librarian 
in  1864,  and  during  the  thirty  years  in  which  he  has  presided 
over  this  national  accumulation  of  literary  treasures  he  has  seen 
its  contents  grow  from  70,000  volumes  to  700,000,  besides  300,000 
pamphlets. 

By  the  present  copyright  law  all  American  copyrights  are 
issued  from  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  and  copies 
of  all  publications  seeking  this  protection  must  be  deposited  in 
the  library.  This  simple  and  satisfactory  arrangement  works 
greatly  to  the  advantage  of  the  National  Library.  Mr.  Spofford 
has  gained  a  high  reputation  for  his  thorough  knowledge  of 
books  in  general,  and  his  individual  acquaintance  with  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  volumes  which  are  in  his  custody.  Thirty  years 
spent  in  handling  these  tomes  have  impressed  their  names  and 
features  on  his  memory.  As  the  shepherd  knows  the  sheep  in 
his  flock,  the  trained  librarian  knows  the  peculiarities  of  the 
books  in  his  collection  and  their  assigned  place  when  not  in  a 
reader's  use.  He  could,  if  desired,  when  a  volume  is  called  for, 


THE  IDEAL  LIBRARY.  II 

find  his  way  in  darkness  to  the  right  alcove,  place  his  haiid  on 
the  right  shelf  and  bear  away  the  volume.  He  could  distinguish 
by  the  sense  of  touch  the  desired  book.  His  knowledge  of  the 
contents  of  books  is  not  less  admirable.  It  has  enabled  him,  amid 
the  constant  demands  on  his  services,  to  compile  and  edit  valuable 
literary  works,  besides  contributing  instructive  articles  to  reviews 
and  magazines  on  his  grand  topic — Books  and  Literature. 

The  Congressional  Library  has  long  been  housed  in  the 
central  part  of  the  Capitol,  and  years  ago  every  available  inch  of 
shelf  room  was  occupied.  Fresh  additions  are  piled  on  floors, 
until  the  picturesquely  towering  heaps  threaten  to  dislodge  the 
living  occupants.  Yet  the  administrator  of  this  intellectual  king- 
dom serenely  looks  forward  to  the  increase  of  these  collections 
to  much  vaster  proportions,  and  he  has  so  impressed  upon  the 
National  legislators  the  absolute  necessity  of  providing  suitable 
accommodations  for  the  ever-swelling  store  that  rises  around 
him,  that  he  can  now  rejoice  in  the  approaching  completion  of 
the  New  National  Library.  It  rises  to  the  east  of  the  Capitol, 
and  is  crowned  with  a  splendid  golden  dome.  The  new  building  is 
designed  to  be  more  commodious,  better  lighted  and  ventilated, 
and  in  all  respects  more  perfectly  adapted  to  the  purposes  for 
which  it  is  intended  than  any  other  library  edifice ;  in  short,  a 
crowning  monument  to  the  enlightenment  and  progressiveness  of 
the  American  people. 

Mr.  Spofford  made  the  first  suggestion  for  the  erection  of  the 
new  library  shortly  before  the  centennial  anniversary  of  the  Inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States,  when  the  city  of  Washington  was 
taking  on  itself  that  new  aspect  which  has  redeemed  it  from  the 
old-time  reproach  of  being  merely  a  city  of  magnificent  distances. 
He  was  successful  in  bringing  Senators  and  Representatives  into 
harmonious  action  for  providing  better  quarters  for  the  bewilder- 
ing mass  of  books,  pamphlets,  periodicals  and  manuscripts  which 
were  steadily  accumulating.  A  bill  was  passed  appropriating 
$585,000  for  the  purchase  of  a  site,  and  three  blocks  of  ground  on 
the  hill  just  east  of  the  Capitol  were  purchased.  On  this  choice 
site,  as  a  result  of  further  appropriations  amounting  to  millions 
of  dollars,  the  stately  pile  rises  in  beauty,  with  its  magnificent 
facade  and  golden  dome,  a  fit  companion  to  the  noble  edifice  of 
the  National  Capitol. 

This  new  library  is  built  for  centuries.  It  is  the  only  govern- 
ment structure  in  this  country  that  has  been  planned  for  more  than 
a  generation.  The  country  grows  so  rapidly  that  it  is  difficult 


12 


THE   IDEAL  LIBRARY. 


to  make  practical  arrangements  ahead  of  its  needs ;  but  in  plan- 
ning the  library  it  was  felt  that  it  was  hardly  worth  while  to  build 
at  all  unless  it  could  be  built  for  the  probable  growth  of  ages  to 
come.  The  present  collection  of  books  and  documents  would  not 
fill  more  than  one  of  the  eight  great  book-stacks.  There  will  be 
sufficient  room  for  4,500,000  volumes.  The  second  story  con- 
tains an  art  gallery  over  200  feet  in  length,  for  the  arrangement 
and  exhibitions  of  works  of  graphic  art,  of  which  many  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  have  been  acquired,  affording  an  instructive 
exhibit  of  the  progress  of  the  arts  of  design.  Another  hall  of 
equal  size  is  devoted  to  the  great  collection  of  maps  which  consti- 
tutes a  rich  historical  series  of  the  utmost  value. 

The  edifice  now  covers  three  and  one-half  acres  of  ground. 
In  the  centre  is  a  magnificent  rotunda,  covered  by  the  golden 
dome.  This  will  be  the  reading  room.  Running  out  from  the 
central  structure  are  the  book-stacks,  all  of  iron,  with  polished 
iron  shelves.  The  spacious  outside  rooms  will  serve  for  the  keep- 
ing of  the  copyright  records  and  the  artistic  treasures  and  most 
precious  books  and  documents  which  the  Government  owns.  The 
full  and  appropriate  display  of  these  monuments  of  literature 
and  art  will  be  a  revelation  of  delight  to  all  who  visit  the  Con- 
gressional Library  in  its  new  abode. — J.  P.  LAMBERTON. 


INTRODUCTION. 


ISTORY  is  the  oldest  kind  of  literature.  The  origin 
of  the  race,  the  movements  of  tribes,  the  ex- 
ploits of  warriors,  the  formation  of  government, 
are  the  staple  of  the  first  writing  among  every 
people.  In  its  beginning,  it  was  often  poetical 
in  form,  being  intended  to  be  committed  to 
memory,  recited  at  feasts  and  public  gatherings, 
and  made  familiar  to  the  new  generation.  In 
later  times,  it  takes  the  prose  form  and  becomes 
the  life-work  of  professional  authors. 
In  English  literature  history  has  always  held  a  prominent 
place.  Many  of  those  who  have  been  most  active  in  public  affairs 
have  turned  aside  for  a  time  to  record  contemporary  events  or  to 
give  fresh  currency  to  accounts  of  the  more  remote  past.  Thus 
did  Bacon  relate  the  "History  of  Henry  the  Seventh,"  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  undertake  the  "History  of  the  World,"  Milton  "The 
History  of  Britain. "  Nor  should  we  omit  to  notice  that  the  editors 
of  Shakespeare,  in  the  first  folio  edition  of  his  immortal  works, 
classified  them  as  Comedies,  Tragedies,  and  Histories.  The 
succeeding  century  was  made  renowned  with  the  great  names  of 
Hume,  Gibbon  and  Robertson,  besides  many  of  minor  importance, 
as  Smollett  and  Goldsmith.  The  nineteenth  century  has  largely 
increased  the  list.  Passing  over  many  worthy  of  note  who  belonged 
to  the  earlier  part  of  this  century,  we  recall  within  living  memory 
Macaulay,  Carlyle,  Palgrave,  Thomas  Arnold,  Mitford,  Thirlwall, 
Grote,  J.  Hill  Burton,  John  R.  Green,  Freeman,  and  Froude,  who, 
each  in  his  own  way  and  in  his  own  chosen  field,  have  explored  and 
re-illumined  the  past. 

America,  too,  by  its  historians  and  biographers,  has  won  a  most 
honorable  rank  among  the  nations.  The  long  list  includes  Wash- 
ington Irving,  Prescott,  Sparks,  Palfrey,  Bancroft,  Motley,  Park- 
man,  Henry  Adams,  L,ossing,  Gayarr6,  MacMaster,  Schouler, 
Fiske,  and  others  who  are  making  valuable  contributions  to  this 

13 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

department.  Some  of  these  foremost  writers  take  pleasure  in 
relating  the  discovery,  the  exploration,  the  settlement,  and  the 
development,  political,  industrial  and  social,  of  the  New  World. 
Others  of  them  have  returned  with  fondness  to  the  sources  of 
our  civilization,  and  patiently  investigated  the  great  historic 
movements  of  the  Old  World.  Many,  recognizing  the  advantage 
of  concentration,  have  limited  their  work  to  single  great  char- 
acters, or  to  memorable  epochs  in  our  country's  history  or  in 
that  of  the  world.  Washington,  Franklin,  Jefferson,  Jackson, 
Lincoln,  Grant  and  other  statesmen  and  heroes  have  furnished 
conspicuous  subjects  for  these  biographers,  and  the  campaigns  and 
battles  of  the  Civil  War  have  been  the  themes  of  interesting 
monographs.  Still  other  writers  have  given  new  fame  to  the 
worthies  of  the  more  remote  past.  By  their  patient  toil  America 
has  made  laudable  additions  to  the  stately  pile  of  history  built  up 
and  still  rising  to  grander  proportions  in  the  English  language. 

While  English  literature  is  thus  honorably  distinguished  by 
the  famous  works  of  both  British  and  American  historians  and 
biographers,  it  has  been  further  enriched  with  excellent  transla- 
tions of  all  the  memorable  works  of  other  literatures,  ancient  and 
modern.  Many  of  these  translations  take  deserved  rank  beside 
their  originals. 

The  result  of  the  labors  of  this  multitude  of  historical  writers 
forms  a  majestic  array,  in  one  aspect  overwhelming,  in  another 
inspiring  to  the  imagination.  The  willing  student  feels  that  he 
needs  a  guide  to  direct  him  in  the  choice  and  use  of  the  vast  riches 
of  these  stores.  The  general  reader  demands  further  that  selec- 
tions be  made  of  the  most  important  and  valuable  parts,  and  that 
judicious  condensations  be  made  of  the  works  which  will  best 
enable  him  to  appreciate  the  mutual  relations  and  intrinsic  value 
of  those  personages  and  facts  for  which  his  attention  and  admira- 
tion are  challenged. 

To  respond  to  this  reasonable  and  intelligent  demand  has  been 
the  aim  of  the  Editors  in  this  Library  of  Historic  Characters  and 
Famous  Events.  From  the  recesses  of  the  grand  treasuries  of 
historic  wealth,  they  have  sought  to  bring  forth  what  is  of  perma- 
nent value  and  immediate  service  and  interest  to  the  American 
people.  They  have  chosen  such  characters  and  events,  as  by 
their  relation  to  the  progress  of  civilization,  their  intrinsic  im- 
portance, their  display  of  national  traits,  or  their  personal  pictur- 
esqueness,  claim  a  place  in  the  memory  of  the  general  reader. 

The  biographical  sketches  have  been  carefully  prepared  from 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

the  best  sources,  and  written  with  a  view  to  impress  the  leading 
facts  on  the  mind.  They  are  designed  to  be  suggestive  rather 
than  exhaustive,  to  be  characters  rather  than  detailed  narratives. 
The  sketches  of  famous  events  have  been  as  carefully  selected 
from  writers  of  acknowledged  merit,  who  have  given  to  these 
historic  incidents  an  appropriate  setting. 

In  giving  prominence  to  biography  in  this  collection  the 
editors  have  followed  the  judgment  of  many  great  masters  of 
thought.  Carlyle,  the  Seer  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  both  a 
philosopher  and  a  historian,  has  given  expression  to  this  truth : 
' '  Universal  History — the  History  of  what  Man  has  accomplished 
in  the  world — is  at  bottom  the  history  of  the  Great  Men  who 
have  lived  here."  Others  of  established  fame  as  thinkers  and 
writers  have  given  the  same  verdict.  By  bringing  forward  in- 
dividually the  leaders  and  heroes  of  nations,  and  by  presenting 
distinctly  their  careers  and  their  distinguishing  exploits,  the 
great  aim  of  historic  study  has  been  most  effectually  subserved. 

The  true  object  of  history  is  not  merely  to  preserve  the  relics 
of  the  past,  however  intrinsically  valuable  they  may  be,  but  to 
represent  its  life,  restore  before  the  mental  vision  its  action,  and 
so  far  as  is  possible  re-create  its  actors  and  their  deeds.  The 
true  historian  is  not  a  mere  chronologer  or  recorder  of  the  dates 
of  events,  however  important.  He  is  not  a  mere  antiquarian  or 
investigator  and  preserver  of  the  outward  aspect,  dress,  manners 
and  surroundings  of  people  of  former  times.  He  is  not  a  mere 
reciter  of  stirring  exploits  and  hair-breadth  escapes.  But  he  is, 
first,  a  searcher  after  the  essential  facts  of  the  immutable  past, 
and,  secondly,  a  literary  artist  who  endeavors  to  give  to  others 
a  correct  and  vivid  impression  of  the  facts  which  he  has  ascer- 
tained. His  facts  must  be  true  or  he  becomes  a  romancer ;  his 
presentation  of  facts  must  be  lifelike  and  attractive,  or  he  will 
sink  into  oblivion. 

The  historians  whom  the  world  delights  to  honor  have  not,  it 
is  true,  been  of  equal  merit  in  these  two  directions.  Some  have 
become  dear  to  the  popular  heart  by  their  skill  in  depicting  the 
events  they  have  chosen  to  recount,  without  being  able  to  analyze 
deeply  the  characters  and  motives  of  the  chief  actors  in  their 
drama.  Yet  where  they  have  presented  clearly  and  vividly  the 
scenes  and  the  deeds,  and  have  been  able  to  appreciate  and  set 
forth  the  relative  importance  of  these,  the  rule  of  truth  has  been 
sufficiently  observed  to  justify  their  fame.  Herodotus  and 
Froissart  still  charm  countless  readers,  however  little  of  philo- 


16 


INTRODUCTION. 


sophic  insight  they  evince.  Even  the  severe  critics  who  censure 
their  defects  yield  without  reluctance  to  the  allurements  of  their 
charming  narratives.  Critics,  too,  of  a  more  gracious  spirit,  find 
in  these  simple  historians  and  their  racy  stories  ample  matter  for 
philosophic  reflection. 

In  this  historical  collection  the  editors  have  endeavored  con- 
stantly to  bear  in  mind  these  fundamental  principles,  so  that 
whether  in  the  original  sketches  of  characters,  or  in  the  selec- 
tions from  eminent  historians  and  orators,  Truth  and  Art  may 
be  seen  harmoniously  united.  They  trust  that  the  result  of 
their  labors  in  presenting  the  great  and  worthy  characters  of  the 
past  and  their  immortal  deeds  may  be  not  only  to  excite  admira- 
tion of  what  has  already  been  achieved  for  human  progress  and 
welfare,  but  to  stimulate  the  rising  generation  to  emulate  the 
glory  of  their  predecessors  and  to  win  for  themselves  a  niche  in 
the  Temple  of  Fame. 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 


ALEXANDER  THE  C-:, 


'  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT. 


ALEXANDER  of  Macedon  is  the 
first  in  the  order  of  time  of  those 
great  commanders  whose  achieve- 
ments form  such  an  essential  part 
of  the  world's  history  that  their 
names  are  ineffaceably  impressed 
on  the  popular  imagination.  His 
campaigns  are  still  carefully  studied 
by  the  greatest  soldiers  and  mili- 
tary critics,  as  establishing  most 
firmly  and  exhibiting  most  clearly  the  fundamental  principles 
of  the  art  of  war.  In  his  brief  career — for  he  was  cut  off  at 
the  early  age  of  thirty-three — he  demonstrated  the  superiority 
of  strategy  and  military  skill  over  the  Oriental  reliance  on 
the  crushing  force  of  huge  masses  of  troops.  He  gave  the 
empire  of  the  world  to  that  Greek  culture  of  which  he  him- 
self was  a  product,  and  which  is  still  bearing  fruit  wherever 
man  has  risen  above  the  savage  state. 

Alexander  was  the  third  Macedonian  king  of  that  name, 
and  was  the  son  of  King  Philip  and  Olympias,  who  claimed 
descent  from  Achilles.  He  was  born  at  Pella,  356  B.  Ci 
When  he  reached  the  age  of  fourteen,  his  father  summoned 
the  famous  philosopher,  Aristotle,  to  become  preceptor  of 
the  young  prince.  While  his  mental  powers  were  thus  devel- 
oped, he  practiced  also  every  manly  and  martial  exercise.  In 
horsemanship  he  especially  excelled,  and  his  famous  exploit 
in  mastering  the  steed  Bucephalus  after  his  father's  most 
expert  grooms  had  failed,  is  familiar  to  all.  At  the  early  age 
of  sixteen  the  precocious  youth  was  permitted  to  act  as  regent 
2  17 


1 8  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

at  the  capital  while  his  father  made  an  expedition  to  Byzan- 
tium. On  hearing  of  Philip's  victories,  he  exclaimed, 
"My.  father  will  leave  me  nothing  to  do."  At  eighteen 
his  dashing  valor  was  shown  in  the  victory  at  Chaeronea, 
which  established  Philip's  supremacy  in  the  affairs  of 
Greece. 

In  336  B.  c.  Philip  of  Macedon  fell  by  the  hand  of  an 
assassin,  and  Alexander,  not  yet  twenty  years  old,  became 
king.  Some  of  the  Grecian  states  deemed  this  a  favorable 
opportunity  to  recover  their  independence,  but  the  young 
king's  astounding  energy  and  promptitude  disconcerted  their 
plans.  Again,  while  he  was  subduing  some  distant  tribes  in 
the  north,  report  of  his  death  was  circulated,  and  Thebes 
threw  off  the  Macedonian  yoke.  But  Alexander  appeared 
before  the  gates,  took  the  city  by  storm,  and  with  his  innate 
barbarian  vehemence  ordered  all  the  houses  to  be  levelled  to 
the  ground.  Yet  the  intellectual  culture  which  he  owed  to 
Greece  was  singularly  shown  in  his  sparing  the  house  in 
which  the  lyric  poet  Pindar  had  been  born.  The  other  cities 
of  Greece,  terrified  by  the  ominous  example  of  Thebes,  has- 
tened to  submit  to  the  son  of  Philip,  already  proved  to  be 
greater  than  his  father.  A  general  assembly  was  held  at 
Corinth,  in  fulfilment  of  a  plan  which  Philip  had  projected, 
and  Alexander  was  chosen  comma nder-in-chief  of  the  expe- 
dition organized  against  the  hereditary  enemy,  the  king  of 
Persia. 

Alexander,  therefore,  as  the  Pan-Hellenic  champion, 
crossed  into  Asia  with  an  army  of  about  40,000  men,  of  whom 
the  cavalry  formed  one-eighth.  The  report  of  his  visit  to  the 
tomb  of  his  ancestor,  Achilles,  near  ancient  Troy,  and  his 
there  celebrating  magnificent  funeral  games,  is  in  keeping 
with  the  story  that  he  carried  constantly  with  him  the  Iliad 
of  Homer  in  a  golden  box.  Sterner  duties  and  more  perilous 
conflicts  awaited  him.  On  the  banks  of  the  river  Granicus 
stood  arrayed  the  army  of  Memnon  the  Greek,  to  whom 
Darius  II.,  surnamed  Codomannus,  had  entrusted  the  com- 
mand of  Asia  Minor.  But  Alexander  forced  a  passage,  and 
thus  released  the  Greek  cities  of  the  western  coast  from  Per- 
sian rule,  and  secured  then-  allegiance  to  a  sovereign  of  their 


ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT.  I 9 

own  race.  A  full  year  was  spent  by  Darius  in  gathering 
from  all  parts  of  his  vast  empire  a  motley  host  to  crush  the 
bold  invaders,  reinforced  by  their  Asiatic  kinsmen.  The  two 
armies  met  at  Issus  in  Cilicia,  near  the  extreme  northeastern 
point  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Though  the  Persian  king, 
with  no  small  skill,  had  carefully  chosen  the  ground  for  the 
contest,  he  was  utterly  defeated,  and  fled,  leaving  his  baggage, 
his  wife  and  his  mother  in  the  hands  of  his  enemy.  Alex- 
ander displayed  the  magnanimity  which  well  became  him, 
and  treated  the  royal  captives  with  the  utmost  respect. 

Entering  Syria,  he  captured  without  difficulty  the  city  of 
Damascus,  which  contained  all  the  treasures  of  the  Great 
King,  but  was  compelled  to  lay  siege  to  Tyre,  built  on  an 
island,  and  then  the  commercial  metropolis  of  the  world. 
This  siege  detained  him  nine  months,  and  though  his  genius 
prevailed  over  insuperable  obstacles,  his  barbarian  temper 
inflicted  cruel  vengeance  on  the  citizens  who  had  sought  to 
defy  him.  According  to  a  doubtful  report,  Alexander  spared 
Jerusalem  at  the  solemn  entreaty  of  its  high  priest,  Jaddua, 
and  confessed  that  he  recognized  in  the  venerable  intercessor 
one  who  had  appeared  to  him  in  a  vision  before  his  crossing 
into  Asia,  and  had  assured  him  of  success.  Gaza,  the  capital 
of  the  Philistines,  held  out  for  two  months,  and  a  week  was 
spent  crossing  the  southern  desert  into  Egypt,  the  ancient 
abode  of  a  civilization  which  is  attested  by  its  sculptured 
records  as  well  as  its  marvellous  pyramids  and  temples.  Here 
the  conqueror,  with  keen  eye  for  advantage  of  situation, 
marked  the  plan  of  the  new  city,  Alexandria,  which  still 
preserves  his  name.  Afterwards,  in  various  parts  of  Asia,  he 
sought  thus  to  stamp  his  impress  on  the  countries  he  brought 
under  his  sway.  Crossing  the  Libyan  desert  to  the  oasis  in 
which  was  the  famous  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  he  demanded 
to  be  called  the  son  of  that  deity.  His  impetuous  vehemence 
extorted  from  the  frightened  priestess  the  desperate  cry,  which 
he  professed  to  consider  oracular,  "  My  son,  thou  art  irresisti- 
ble." The  facts  of  his  career  confirmed  the  saying.  In  less 
than  two  years,  after  two  battles  and  four  sieges,  the  wealthy 
and  populous  countries  of  Asia  Minor,  Syria  and  Egypt  had 
submitted  to  his  arms.  But  the  Persian  empire  had  not  yet 


20  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

been  destroyed.  Dreading  further  encounter,  Darius  offered 
to  divide  with  Alexander  the  sovereignty  of  Asia,  but  the 
Macedonian  replied,  "Heaven  cannot  support  two  suns,  nor 
Asia  two  kings." 

In  331  B.  c.  Alexander  returned  to  Syria,  passed  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris,  and  on  the  field  of  Arbela  again  de- 
feated Darius,  now  at  the  head  of  an  army  even  stronger  than 
that  which  he  had  mustered  at  Issus.  The  ancient  capital  of 
Babylon  opened  her  gates  to  the  conqueror,  and  Darius, 
"fallen  from  his  high  estate,"  fled  through  Persia  toward  the 
wilds  of  Central  Asia.  After  a  year's  wandering  the  king 
was  slain  by  the  traitor  Bessus ;  but  the  assassin,  instead  of 
being  rewarded  by  Alexander,  as  he  had  expected,  was 
delivered  to  the  relatives  of  Darius  to  be  tortured.  Alexander, 
having  completed  the  conquest  of  Persia  as  far  as  the  coast  of 
the  Caspian  Sea,  penetrated  into  Scythia.  Again  receiving 
16,000  recruits  from  Macedonia,  he  resolved  to  add  India  to 
his  empire.  Crossing  the  Indus  in  the  next  year,  he  van- 
quished the  valiant  Porus  in  a  pitched  battle  and  took  him 
prisoner. 

The  Greeks  had  now  accomplished  far  more  than  the 
original  declared  purpose  of  the  war,  the  overthrow  of  the 
Persian  empire,  and  when  their  commander,  with  insatiable 
love  of  conquest,  called  them  to  push  on  to  the  Ganges,  the 
wearied  troops  peremptorily  refused.  Alexander,  therefore, 
recognizing  the  necessity,  if  not  the  justice,  of  yielding  to 
their  wishes,  prepared  for  their  return  to  Greece  by  building 
eight  hundred  vessels,  in  which  they  sailed  down  the  Indus. 
Arriving  at  the  ocean,  he  sent  Nearchus  as  admiral  of  a  fleet 
to  coast  along  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Euphrates.  He  himself  took  the  overland  route  through  a 
dreary  desert,  and  visited  again  the  most  ancient  cities  of 
Persia.  At  the  close  of  one  of  those  scenes  of  drunken 
revelry  which  too  often  disgraced  his  career,  he  set  fire  to  the 
temple  of  Persepolis.  And  yet,  perhaps  to  win  the  allegiance 
of  the  people  of  the  empire,  he  had  already  adopted  the  cos- 
tume and  manners  of  the  Persian  court.  He  also  married 
Statira,  the  daughter  of  Darius. 

In  324  B.  c.  Alexander  marched   again  to  the  north  to 


ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT.  21 

subdue  rebellious  tribes,  and  visited  Ecbatana,  the  usual 
summer  residence  of  the  Persian  kings.  In  the  midst  of  fes- 
tivities at  this  place,  Hephaestion,  his  favorite  from  his  boyish 
days,  was  seized  with  a  fever  due  to  a  drinking  bout,  and  in 
spite  of  the  vigor  of  his  constitution,  died  in  a  few  days. 
Alexander's  grief  for  this  loss  was  unbounded,  and  manifested 
itself  in  incredible  excesses.  He  also  caused  a  magnificent 
funeral  pile  to  be  erected  at  Babylon,  and  even  sought  to 
render  his  friend  divine  honors.  At  last  the  conqueror  roused 
himself  from  the  passionate  grief  which  daily  made  his  tem- 
per more  irascible,  and  found  consolation  in  subduing  the 
mountain  tribe  Cossaei,  who  had  defied  the  attacks  of  Persian 
kings.  Pursuing  them  into  almost  impenetrable  recesses  of 
the  rocks,  he  slew  the  entire  male  population. 

During  his  leisurely  return  to  Babylon  the  conqueror 
received  envoys  from  remote  nations,  not  only  from  the  East, 
but  from  Carthage,  Ethiopia,  Scythia,  Gaul,  Sicily,  Sardinia, 
the  cities  of  Southern  Italy,  and  even,  as  some  say,  from 
Rome.  Yet  dark  omens  and  prophecies  are  reported  to  have 
clouded  his  enjoyments,  and  the  Chaldean  priests  warned  him 
to  stay  outside  the  gates  of  Babylon.  After  some  hesitation 
he  entered,  attended  to  various  affairs  of  state,  and  conducted 
the  obsequies  of  his  deceased  friend.  The  feast  which  formed 
part  of  the  funeral  ceremonies  was  prolonged  into  boisterous 
revelry,  in  which  Alexander  wildly  indulged.  A  fever  ensued, 
during  which  he  still  directed  all  public  affairs  until  his 
strength  failed.  Then  he  ordered  all  his  generals  and  officers 
to  remain  in  attendance  near  the  hall.  His  last  utterance  is 
said  to  have  been  in  reply  to  the  question  to  whom  he 
bequeathed  his  kingdom,  ' '  To  the  strongest. ' '  One  of  his  last 
acts  was  to  take  the  signet  ring  from  his  finger  and  give  it  to 
Perdiccas.  He  died  in  June,  323  B.  c.,  after  a  life  of  thirty- 
two  years  and  eight  months. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  ARBELA. 

Arbela,  the  city  which  has  furnished  its  name  to  the  deci- 
sive battle  which  gave  Asia  to  Alexander,  lies  more  than 
twenty  miles  from  the  actual  scene  of  conflict.  A  little  vil- 


22  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

lage,  then  named  Gaugamela,  is  close  to  the  spot  where  the 
armies  met,  in  one  of  the  wide  plains  that  lie  between  the 
Tigris -and  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan.  A  few  undulating 
hillocks  diversify  the  surface  of  this  sandy  tract ;  but  the 
ground  is  generally  level,  and  admirably  qualified  for  the 
evolutions  of  cavalry,  and  also  calculated  to  give  the 
larger  of  two  armies  the  full  advantage  of  numerical  superior- 
ity. The  Persian  king  (who,  before  he  came  to  the  throne, 
had  proved  his  personal  valor  as  a  soldier  and  his  skill  as  a 
general)  had  wisely  selected  this  region  for  the  third  and  deci- 
sive encounter  between  his  forces  and  the  invader.  The  pre- 
vious defeats  of  his  troops,  however  severe  they  had  been, 
were  not  looked  on  as  irreparable.  The  Granicus  had  been 
fought  by  his  generals  rashly  and  without  mutual  concert ;  and, 
though  Darius  himself  had  commanded  and  been  beaten  at 
Issus,  that  defeat  might  be  attributed  to  the  disadvantageous 
nature  of  the  ground,  where,  cooped  up  between  the  moun- 
tains, the  river,  and  the  sea,  the  numbers  of  the  Persians  con- 
fused and  clogged  alike  the  general's  skill  and  the  soldiers' 
prowess,  and  their  very  strength  had  been  made  their  weak- 
ness. Here,  on  the  broad  plains  of  Kurdistan,  there  was 
scope  for  Asia's  largest  host  to  array  its  lines,  to  wheel,  to 
skirmish,  to  condense  or  expand  its  squadrons,  to  manceuver, 
and  to  charge  at  will.  Should  Alexander  and  his  scanty 
band  dare  to  plunge  into  that  living  sea  of  war,  their  destruc- 
tion seemed  inevitable. 

A  little  before  the  end  of  August,  Alexander  crossed  the 
Euphrates  at  Thapsacus,  a  small  corps  of  Persian  cavalry 
under  Mazaeus  retiring  before  him.  Alexander  was  too  pru- 
dent to  march  down  through  the  Mesopotamian  deserts,  and 
continued  to  advance  eastward  with  the  intention  of  passing 
the  Tigris,  and  then,  if  he  was  unable  to  find  Darius  and 
bring  him  to  action,  of  marching  southward  on  the  left  side 
of  that  river  along  the  skirts  of  a  mountainous  district  where 
his  men  would  suffer  less  from  heat  and  thirst,  and  where  pro- 
visions would  be  more  abundant. 

On  learning  that  Darius  was  with  a  large  army  on  the  left 
of  the  Tigris,  Alexander  hurried  forward  and  crossed  that 
river  without  opposition.  He  was  at  first  unable  to  procure 


ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT.  23 

any  certain  intelligence  of  the  precise  position  of  the  enemy, 
and  after  giving  his  army  a  short  interval  of  rest,  he  marched 
for  four  days  down  the  left  bank  of  the  river. 

On  the  fourth  day  Alexander's  advance  guard  reported 
that  a  body  of  the  enemy's  cavalry  was  in  sight.  He  instantly 
formed  his  army  in  order  for  battle,  and  directing  them  to 
advance  steadily,  he  rode  forward  at  the  head  of  some  squadrons 
of  cavalry,  and  charged  the  Persian  horse,  whom  he  found 
before  him.  This  was  a  mere  reconnoitering  party,  and  they 
broke  and  fled  immediately  ;  but  the  Macedonians  made  some 
prisoners,  and  from  them  Alexander  found  that  Darius  was 
posted  only  a  few  miles  off,  and  learned  the  strength  of  the 
army  that  he  had  with  him.  On  receiving  this  news  Alexan- 
der halted,  and  gave  his  men  repose  for  four  days,  so  that  they 
should  go  into  action  fresh  and  vigorous.  He  also  fortified  his 
camp  and  deposited  in  it  all  his  military  stores,  and  all  his 
sick  and  disabled  soldiers,  intending  to  advance  upon  the 
enemy  with  the  serviceable  part  of  his  army  perfectly  unen- 
cumbered. After  this  halt,  he  moved  forward,  while  it  was 
yet  dark,  with  the  intention  of  reaching  the  enemy,  and 
attacking  them  at  break  of  day.  About  half  way  between  the 
camps  there  were  some  undulations  of  the  ground,  which  con- 
cealed the  two  armies  from  each  other's  view. 

Alexander  halted  his  army  on  the  heights,  and,  taking  with 
him  some  light-armed  infantry  and  some  cavalry,  he  passed 
part  of  the  day  in  reconnoitering  the  enemy,  and  observing  the 
nature  of  the  ground  on  which  he  had  to  fight.  Darius  wisely 
refrained  from  moving  from  his  position  to  attack  the  Mace- 
donians on  the  eminences  which  they  occupied,  and  the  two 
armies  remained  until  night  without  molesting  each  other. 

The  Persians  expected,  and  were  prepared  to  meet,  a  night 
attack.  Such  was  the  apprehension  that  Darius  entertained 
of  it,  that  he  formed  his  troops  at  evening  in  order  of  battle, 
and  kept  them  under  arms  all  night.  The  morning  of  the 
first  of  October,  331  B.  a,  dawned  slowly  to  their  wearied 
watching,  and  they  could  hear  the  note  of  the  Macedonian 
trumpet  sounding  to  arms,  and  could  see  King  Alexander's 
forces  descend  from  their  tents  on  the  heights,  and  form  in 
order  of  battle  on  the  plain. 


24  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

There  was  deep  need  of  skill,  as  well  as  of  valor,  on 
Alexander's  side ;  and  few  battle-fields  have  witnessed  more 
consummate  generalship  than  was  now  displayed  by  the  Mace- 
donian king.  There  were  no  natural  barriers  by  which  he 
could  protect  his  flanks ;  and  not  only  was  he  certain  to  be 
overlapped  on  either  wing  by  the  vast  lines  of  the  Persian 
army,  but  there  was  imminent  risk  of  their  circling  round 
him,  and  charging  him  in  the  rear,  while  he  advanced  against 
their  centre.  He  formed,  therefore,  a  second  or  reserve  line, 
which  was  to  wheel  round,  if  required,  or  to  detach  troops  to 
either  flank,  as  the  enemy's  movements  might  necessitate ; 
and  thus,  with  their  whole  army  ready  at  any  moment  to  be 
thrown  into  one  vast  hollow  square,  the  Macedonians  ad- 
vanced in  two  lines  against  the  enemy,  Alexander  himself 
leading  on  the  right  wing,  and  the  renowned  phalanx  form- 
ing the  centre,  while  Parmenio  commanded  on  the  left. 

Conspicuous  by  the  brilliancy  of  his  armor,  and  by  the 
chosen  band  of  officers  who  were  round  his  person,  Alexander 
took  his  station  at  the  head  of  his  cavalry  ;  and  when  all  the 
arrangements  for  the  battle  were  complete,  and  his  generals 
were  fully  instructed  how  to  act  in  each  probable  emergency, 
he  began  to  lead  his  men  toward  the  enemy.  It  was  ever  his 
custom  to  expose  his  life  freely  in  battle,  and  to  emulate  the 
personal  prowess  of  his  great  ancestor,  Achilles. 

Great  reliance  had  been  placed  by  the  Persian  king  on  the 
effects  of  the  scythe-bearing  chariots.  It  was  designed  to 
launch  these  against  the  Macedonian  phalanx,  and  to  follow 
them  up  by  a  heavy  charge  of  cavalry,  which,  it  was  hoped, 
would  find  the  ranks  of  the  spearmen  disordered  by  the  rush 
of  the  chariots,  and  easily  destroy  this  most  formidable  part 
of  Alexander's  force.  In  front,  therefore,  of  the  Persian  cen- 
tre, where  Darius  took  his  station,  and  which  it  was  supposed 
that  the  phalanx  would  attack,  the  ground  had  been  carefully 
levelled  and  smoothed,  so  as  to  allow  the  chariots  to  charge 
over  it  with  their  full  sweep  and  speed.  As  the  Macedonian 
army  approached  the  Persian,  Alexander  found  that  the  front 
of  his  whole  line  barely  equalled  the  front  of  the  Persian 
centre,  so  that  he  was  outflanked  on  his  right  by  the  entire 
left  wing  of  the  enemy,  and  by  their  entire  right  wing  on  his 


ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT.  25 

left.  His  tactics  were  to  assail  some  one  point  of  the  hostile 
army,  and  gain  a  decided  advantage,  while  he  refused,  as  far 
as  possible,  the  encounter  along  the  rest  of  the  line.  He 
therefore  inclined  his  order  of  march  to  the  right,  so  as  to 
enable  his  right  wing  and  centre  to  come  into  collision  with 
the  enemy  on  as  favorable  terms  as  possible,  although  the 
manoeuver  might  in  some  respect  compromise  his  left. 

The  effect  of  this  oblique  movement  was  to  bring  the 
phalanx  and  his  own  wing  nearly  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
ground  which  the  Persians  had  prepared  for  the  operations  of 
the  chariots ;  and  Darius,  fearing  to  lose  the  benefit  of  this 
arm  against  the  most  important  parts  of  the  Macedonian 
force,  ordered  the  Scythian  and  Bactrian  cavalry,  who  were 
drawn  up  in  front  of  his  extreme  left,  to  charge  round  upon 
Alexander's  right  wing,  and  check  its  further  lateral  progress. 
Against  these  assailants  Alexander  sent  from  his  second  line 
Menidas'  cavalry.  As  these  proved  too  few  to  make  head 
against  the  enemy,  he  ordered  Ariston  also  from  the  second 
line  with  his  right  horse,  and  Oleander  with  his  foot,  in  sup- 
port of  Menidas.  The  Bactrians  and  Scythians  now  began  to 
give  way ;  but  Darius  reinforced  them  by  the  mass  of  Bac- 
trian cavalry  from  his  main  line,  and  an  obstinate  cavalry 
fight  now  took  place.  The  Bactrians  and  Scythians  were 
numerous,  and  were  better  armed  than  the  horsemen  under 
Menidas  and  Ariston ;  and  the  loss  at  first  was  heaviest  on  the 
Macedonian  side.  But  still  the  European  cavalry  stood  the 
charge  of  the  Asiatics,  and  at  last,  by  their  superior  discipline, 
and  by  acting  in  squadrons  that  supported  each  other,  instead 
of  fighting  in  a  confused  mass  like  the  barbarians,  the  Mace- 
donians broke  their  adversaries,  and  drove  them  off  the  field. 

Darius  now  directed  the  scythe-armed  chariots  to  be  driven 
against  Alexander's  horse  guards  and  the  phalanx,  and  these 
formidable  vehicles  were  accordingly  sent  rattling  across  the 
plain,  against  the  Macedonian  line.  But  the  Asiatic  chariots 
were  rendered  ineffective  by  the  light-armed  troops,  whom 
Alexander  had  specially  appointed  for  the  service,  and  who, 
wounding  the  horses  and  drivers  with  their  missile  weapons, 
and  running  alongside  so  as  to  cut  the  traces  or  seize  the  reins, 
marred  the  intended  charge  ;  and  the  few  chariots  that  reached 


26  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

the  phalanx  passed  harmlessly  through  the  intervals  which 
the  spearmen  opened  for  them,  and  were  easily  captured  in 
the  rear. 

A  mass  of  Asiatic  cavalry  was  now,  for  the  second  time, 
collected  against  Alexander's  extreme  right,  and  moved  round 
it,  with  the  view  of  gaining  the  flank  of  his  army.  At  the 
critical  moment,  when  their  own  flanks  were  exposed  by  this 
evolution,  Aretes  dashed  on  the  Persian  squadrons  with  his 
horsemen  from  Alexander's  second  line.  While  Alexander 
thus  met  and  baffled  all  the  flanking  attacks  of  the  enemy 
with  troops  brought  up  from  his  second  line,  he  kept  his  own 
horse-guards  and  the  rest  of  the  front  line  of  his  wing  fresh, 
and  ready  to  take  advantage  of  the  first  opportunity  for 
striking  a  decisive  blow.  This  soon  came.  A  large  body  of 
horse,  who  were  posted  on  the  Persian  left  wing  nearest  to  the 
centre,  quitted  their  station,  and  rode  off  to  help  their  com- 
rades in  the  cavalry  fight,  that  still  was  going  on  at  the  ex- 
treme right  of  Alexander's  wing  against  the  detachments 
from  his  second  line.  This  made  a  huge  gap  in  the  Persian 
array,  and  into  this  space  Alexander  instantly  charged  with 
his  guard  and  all  the  cavalry  of  his  wing ;  and  then  pressing 
toward  his  left,  he  soon  began  to  make  havoc  in  the  left  flank 
of  the  Persian  centre.  The  shield-bearing  infantry  now 
charged  also  among  the  reeling  masses  of  the  Asiatics ;  and 
five  of  the  brigades  of  the  phalanx,  with  the  irresistible  might 
of  their  long  pikes,  bore  down  the  Greek  mercenaries  of 
Darius,  and  dug  their  way  through  the  Persian  centre.  In 
the  early  part  of  the  battle  Darius  had  showed  skill  and 
energy ;  and  he  now,  for  some  time,  encouraged  his  men,  by 
voice  and  example,  to  keep  firm.  But  the  lances  of  Alexan- 
der's cavalry  and  the  pikes  of  the  phalanx  pressed  nearer 
and  nearer  to  him.  His  charioteer  was  struck  down  by  a 
javelin  at  his  side ;  and  at  last  Darius'  nerve  failed  him,  and, 
descending  from  his  chariot,  he  mounted  on  a  fleet  horse  and 
galloped  from  the  plain,  regardless  of  the  state  of  the  battle 
in  other  parts  of  the  field,  where  matters  were  going  on  much 
more  favorably  for  his  cause,  and  where  his  presence  might 
have  done  much  toward  gaining  a  victory. 

Alexander's  operations  with  his  right  and  centre  had  ex- 


ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT.  2J 

posed  his  left  to  an  immensely  preponderating  force  of  the 
enemy.  Parmenio  kept  out  of  action  as  long  as  possible  ;  but 
Mazasus,  who  commanded  the  Persian  right  wing,  advanced 
against  him,  completely  outflanked  him,  and  pressed  him 
severely  with  reiterated  charges  by  superior  numbers.  Seeing 
the  distress  of  Parmenio' s  wing,  Simmias,  who  commanded 
the  sixth  brigade  of  the  phalanx,  which  was  next  to  the  left 
wing,  did  not  advance  with  the  other  brigades  in  the  great 
charge  upon  the  Persian  centre,  but  kept  back  to  cover  Par- 
menio's  troops  on  their  right  flank,  as  otherwise  they  would 
have  been  completely  surrounded  and  cut  off  from  the  rest  of 
the  Macedonian  army.  By  so  doing,  Simmias  had  unavoid- 
ably opened  a  gap  in  the  Macedonian  left  centre ;  and  a  large 
column  of  Indian  and  Persian  horse,  from  the  Persian  right 
centre,  had  galloped  forward  through  this  interval,  and  right 
through  the  troops  of  the  Macedonian  second  line.  Instead 
of  then  wheeling  round  upon  Parmenio,  or  upon  the  rear  of 
Alexander's  conquering  wing,  the  Indian  and  Persian  cavalry 
rode  straight  on  to  the  Macedonian  camp,  overpowered  the 
Thracians  who  were  left  in  charge  of  it,  and  began  to  plunder. 
This  was  stopped  by  the  phalangite  troops  of  the  second  line, 
who,  after  the  enemy's  horsemen  had  rushed  by  them,  faced 
about,  countermarched  upon  the  camp,  killed  many  of  the 
Indians  and  Persians  in  the  act  of  plundering,  and  forced  the 
rest  to  ride  off  again.  Just  at  this  crisis,  Alexander  had  been 
recalled  from  his  pursuit  of  Darius  by  tidings  of  the  distress 
of  Parmenio  and  of  his  inability  to  bear  up  any  longer  against 
the  hot  attacks  of  Mazaeus.  Taking  his  horse-guards  with 
him,  Alexander  rode  toward  the  part  of  the  field  where  his 
left  wing  was  fighting ;  but  on  his  way  thither  he  encountered 
the  Persian  and  Indian  cavalry,  on  their  return  from  his 
camp. 

These  men  now  saw  that  their  only  chance  of  safety  was 
to  cut  their  way  through,  and  in  one  huge  column  they 
charged  desperately  upon  the  Macedonian  regiments.  There 
was  here  a  close  hand-to-hand  fight,  which  lasted  some  time, 
and  sixty  of  the  royal  horse-guards  fell,  and  three  generals, 
who  fought  close  to  Alexander's  side,  were  wounded.  At 
length  the  Macedonian  discipline  and  valor  again  prevailed, 


28  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

and  a  large  number  of  the  Persian  and  Indian  horsemen  were 
cut  down,  some  few  only  succeeding  in  breaking  through  and 
riding  away.  Relieved  of  these  obstinate  enemies,  Alexander 
again  formed  his  regiments  of  horse-guards,  and  led  them 
toward  Parmenio ;  but  by  this  time  that  general  also  was 
victorious.  Probably  the  news  of  Darius'  flight  had  reached 
Mazaeus,  and  had  damped  the  ardor  of  the  Persian  right  wing, 
while  the  tidings  of  their  comrades'  success  must  have  pro- 
portionally encouraged  the  Macedonian  forces  under  Parmenio. 
His  Thessalian  cavalry  particularly  distinguished  themselves 
by  their  gallantry  and  persevering  good  conduct ;  and  by  the 
time  that  Alexander  had  ridden  up  to  Parmenio,  the  whole 
Persian  army  was  in  full  flight  from  the  field. 

It  was  of  the  deepest  importance  to  Alexander  to  secure 
the  person  of  Darius,  and  he  now  urged  on  the  pursuit.  The 
River  Lycus  was  between  the  field  of  battle  and  the  city  of 
Arbela,  whither  the  fugitives  directed  their  course,  and  the 
passage  of  this  river  was  even  more  destructive  to  the  Per- 
sians than  the  swords  and  spears  of  the  Macedonians  had  been 
in  the  engagement.  The  narrow  bridge  was  soon  choked  up 
by  the  flying  thousands  who  rushed  toward  it,  and  vast  num- 
bers of  the  Persians  threw  themselves,  or  were  hurried  by 
others,  into  the  rapid  stream,  and  perished  in  its  waters. 
Darius  had  crossed  it,  and  had  ridden  on  through  Arbela 
without  halting.  Alexander  reached  the  city  on  the  next  day, 
and  made  himself  master  of  all  the  Persian  king's  treasure 
and  stores.  Darius,  unfortunately  for  himself,  had  fled  too 
fast  for  his  conqueror,  but  had  only  escaped  to  perish  by  the 
treachery  of  his  Bactrian  satrap,  Bessus.  A  few  days  after 
the  battle  Alexander  entered  Babylon,  "the  oldest  seat  of 
earthly  empire"  then  in  existence,  as  its  acknowledged  lord 
and  master. — SIR  E.  S.  CREASY. 


ALTHOUGH  the  ancient  accounts  of  the 
personal  history  of  Lycurgiis  have  many 
discrepancies,  and  are  disputed  by  mod- 
ern critics,  we  give  the  generally  received 
outline  of  his  career.  He  is  reputed  to 
have  been  born  about  926  B.  c. ,  and  to  be 
the  son  of  king  Eunomus.  As  guardian 
qf  his  nephew,  who  had  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  Lycurgus  conducted  the  affairs  of 
the  state  with  great  wisdom  and  probity.  Later  on,  he 
became  a  traveler,  and  while  visiting  the  island  of  Crete 
thoroughly  studied  its  laws.  Thence  he  passed  to  Asia 
Minor,  and  viewed  the  Ionian  cities,  sunk  in  luxury  and 
effeminacy.  Finding  there  the  poems  of  Homer,  he  was  so 
enraptured  by  their  manly  and  heroic  strain  that  he  collected 
and  transcribed  them,  and  was  the  first  to  introduce  them 
fully  into  Greece. 

In  the  meantime  Sparta  was  a  prey  to  civil  dissensions, 
and  several  deputations  were  sent  to  Lycurgus,  imploring 
him  to  return  and  resume  the  reins  of  Government.  At 
length,  after  fully  maturing  the  political  knowledge  which 
it  had  been  his  principal  object  to  acquire  by  travel,  he  came 
back  to  his  native  land.  Perceiving  that  the  disorders  of  the 
state  admitted  no  other  effectual  remedy  than  a  total  change 
of  the  laws  and  constitution,  he  proposed  a  new  legislative 
system  for  Sparta. 

Like  other  legislators,  Lycurgus  fortified  his  authority  with 
the  sanctions  of  religion,  and  obtained  from  the  oracle  of 
Delphi  a  declaration  that  the  new  constitution  would  be  the 
most  excellent  in  the  world.  He  also  directed  thirty  of  his 
friends  to  appear  armed  in  the  market-place,  in  order  to  inti- 

29 


30  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

midate  opposition.  Thus  surrounded,  he  promulgated  his 
new  constitution  and  code  of  laws.  The  monarchical  part  of 
the  government,  administered  by  two  kings,  was  retained ; 
but  a  senate  of  twenty-eight  persons  was  formed,  as  a  media- 
ting body  between  them  and  the  people.  He  was  equally 
averse  to  a  tyranny  and  an  unmixed  democracy.  Yet  the 
people  were  allowed  a  public  assembly  in  which  the  most 
important  measures  were  to  be  voted  on,  and  five  officers, 
called  ephors,  were  commissioned  as  their  representatives,  to 
see  that  the  kings  did  not  violate  their  enactments.  These 
ephors  became  eventually  the  controlling  power  of  the  Spartan 
state. 

The  next  step  of  Lycurgus  was  the  very  arduous  measure 
of  equalizing  landed  property.  The  territory  of  Sparta  and  of 
the  rest  of  Laconia  was  divided  into  lots,  each  capable  of 
supporting  a  single  family,  and  one  of  these  was  assigned  to 
each  citizen.  Lycurgus  attempted  to  equalize  other  property 
by  forbidding  the  use  of  gold  and  silver  coin,  and  allowing  no 
other  money  than  iron,  which  was  so  bulky  that  it  was  im- 
possible to  hoard  much  wealth.  Still  further  to  reduce  to  a 
social  level,  and  preclude  private  luxury,  he  ordained  that  all 
the  men  should  eat  at  public  tables,  where  all  were  served 
alike  with  plain,  wholesome  food.  This  regulation  proved 
more  grievous  to  the  richer  classes  than  any  other,  and  even 
caused  a  tumult,  in  which  Lycurgus  lost  an  eye.  His  beha- 
vior on  this  occasion  was  truly  philosophical,  as  he  pardoned 
the  youthful  perpetrator,  and  converted  him  into  a  permanent 
friend. 

The  spirit  of  his  ordinances,  which  extended  to  all  the 
particulars  of  education,  and  of  social  arrangements,  was  to 
form  a  people  in  whom  patriotism  should  be  paramount  to 
private  interests,  who  should  be  vigorous  in  body  and  invin- 
cible in  defence  of  their  country.  In  pursuance  of  this,  he 
scrupled  not  to  sacrifice  the  decencies  of  life.  Together  with 
riches,  he  excluded  all  the  fine  arts,  and  all  the  studies  which 
soften  and  humanize  the  mind  and  heart.  But  what  he  aimed 
at  he  obtained  ;  and  Sparta,  under  the  stern  laws  of  Lycurgus, 
became  a  gymnasium  of  athletic  warriors,  whose  prowess  for 
centuries  dominated  all  Greece.  - 


LYCURGUS,    THE  SPARTAN  LAWGIVER.  3! 

The  disinterestedness  of  Lycurgus  was  proved  by  his  last 
administrative  act.  In  an  assembly  of  the  people  that  he 
convoked,  he  said  that  it  was  important  that  he  should  consult 
the  oracle  at  Delphi  on  one  remaining  point ;  but  before  his 
departure  he  wished  them  to  take  a  solemn  oath  to  observe  his 
laws  inviolably  until  his  return.  They  complied,  and  he  went 
to  Delphi,  where  he  obtained  a  declaration  that  while  Sparta 
should  keep  the  laws  of  Lycurgus,  she  should  be  the  most 
flourishing  of  cities.  This  oracle  he  sent  to  Sparta,  and  then 
disappeared,  in  order  that  they  might  never  be  freed  from  the 
obligation  of  their  oath.  The  classical  authors  are  not 
agreed  concerning  what  afterwards  became  of  him.  His 
memory  was  long  honored  at  Sparta  by  an  anniversary,  at,1 
which  his  praises  were  recited  and  sung. 


LACONIC  SPEECH. 

Lycurgus  fixed  but  a  small  value  on  a  considerable 
quantity  of  his  iron  money  ;  but  on  the  contrary,  the  worth 
of  speech  was  to  consist  in  its  being  comprised  in  a  few  plain 
words,  pregnant  with  a  great  deal  of  sense  ;  and  he  contrived 
that  by  long  silence  they  might  learn  to  be  sententious  and 
acute  in  their  replies.  As  debauchery  often  causes  weakness 
and  sterility  in  the  body,  so  the  intemperance  of  the  tongue 
makes  conversation  empty  and  insipid.  King  Agis,  there- 
fore, when  a  certain  Athenian  laughed  at  the  Lacedaemonian 
short  swords,  and  said,  "The  jugglers  would  swallow  them 
with  ease  upon  the  stage,"  answered  in  his  laconic  way, 
"And  yet  we  can  reach  our  enemies'  hearts  with  them." 
Indeed,  to  me  there  seems  to  be  something  in  this  concise 
manner  of  speaking  which  immediately  reaches  the  object 
aimed  at,  and  forcibly  strikes  the  mind  of  the  hearer. 

Lycurgus  himself  was  short  and  sententious  in  his  dis- 
course, if  we  may  judge  by  some  of  his  answers  which  are 
recorded  ;  that,  for  instance,  concerning  the  constitution. 
When  one  advised  him  to  establish  a  popular  government  in 
Lacedaemon,  ' '  Go, ' '  said  he,  ' '  and  first  make  a  trial  of  it  in 
thy  own  family."  That  again,  concerning  sacrifices  to  the 
Deity,  when  he  was  asked  why  he  appointed  them  so  trifling 


32  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

and  of  so  little  value,  "That  we  might  never  be  in  want," 
said  he,  "of  something  to  offer  him."  Once  more,  when  they 
inquired  of  him,  what  sort  of  martial  exercises  he  allowed  of, 
he  answered,  "All,  except  those  in  which  you  stretch  out 
your  hands"  (which  was  the  form  of  demanding  quarter  in 
battle).  Several  such  like  replies  of  his  are  said  to  be  taken 
from  the  letters  which  he  wrote  to  his  countrymen  ;  as  to 
their  question,  "How  shall  we  best  guard  against  the  inva- 
sion of  the  enemy?"  "By  continuing  poor,  and  not  desiring 
in  your  possession  to  be  one  above  another."  And  to  the 
question,  whether  they  should  enclose  Sparta  with  walls, 
"  That  city  is  well  fortified,  which  has  a  wall  of  men  instead 
of  brick. ' '  Whether  these  and  some  other  letters  ascribed  to 
him  are  genuine  or  not,  is  no  easy  matter  to  determine. 

That  they  hated  long  speeches,  the  following  sayings  are 
a  farther  proof.  King  I^eonidas  said  to  one  who  discoursed 
at  an  improper  time  about  affairs  of  some  concern,  "My 
friend,  you  should  not  talk  so  much  to  the  purpose  of  what 
it  is  not  to  the  purpose  to  talk  of."  Charilaus,  the  nephew  of 
Lycurgus,  being  asked  why  his  uncle  had  made  so  few  laws, 
answered,  "  To  men  of  few  words,  few  laws  are  sufficient." 
Some  people  finding  fault  with  Hecataeus  the  sophist,  because, 
when  admitted  to  one  of  the  public  repasts,  he  said  nothing 
all  the  time,  Archidamidas  replied,  "He  that  knows  how  to 
speak,  knows  also  when  to  speak." — PLUTARCH. 


EPAMINONDAS 


PAMINONDAS,  one  of  the  greatest 
and  noblest  characters  recorded  in 
ancient  history,  was  a  native  of  Thebes, 
in  Boeotia.  Though  born  and  reared 
in  poverty,  he  was  educated  by  the  best 
masters  in  Greece.  From  one  of  them, 
Lysis,  the  Pythagorean,  he  probably 
acquired  that  elevation  of  mind  and 
austerity  of  morals  which  characterized  him  throughout  his 
career.  He  was  never  married.  His  indifference  to  riches 
rendered  him  inaccessible  to  corruption  of  every  kind  ;  and 
though  he  was  susceptible  to  glory,  yet,  like  a  true  phil- 
osopher, he  made  the  consciousness  of  rectitude,  and  not  fame, 
the  great  object  of  his  life.  To  the  qualities  of  an  exalted 
mind  he  added  a  serene  and  amiable  disposition,  wisdom  and 
sincerity.  By  the  general  agreement  of  writers,  he  exhibited 
beyond  almost  any  ancient  personality  the  appearance  of  a 
perfect  character. 

The  Spartans,  having  obtained  possession  of  Thebes  in 
383  B.C.,  expelled  Pelopidas,  a  friend  of  Epaminondas,  for  his 
attachment  to  liberty.  But  Epaminondas,  being  considered 
as  of  no  political  weight,  was  permitted  to  remain.  Pelopidas 
and  other  exiles,  four  years  later,  by  bold  stratagem  entered 
and  mastered  the  city,  amid  much  bloodshed.  When  his 
friends  had  succeeded,  Epaminondas,  abhorring  civil  strife, 
energetically  interfered  to  stop  the  slaughter  of  the  van- 
quished. 

The  two  friends  now  formed  the  design  of  arousing  in  their 
Theban  countrymen  an  enduring  sense  of  the  benefits  of 
3  33 


34  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

virtue  and  liberty,  exhorting  them  to  frugality  in  living,  and 
contempt  of  pleasure. 

As  one  of  the  delegates  to  a  convention  of  the  Grecian 
States,  held  at  Sparta,  to  treat  of  a  general  peace,  Epami- 
nondas  showed  such  independence  of  conduct  as  to  exasperate 
the  Spartan  king,  Agesilaus.  The  Thebans  were  therefore 
excluded  from  the  peace,  and  war  was  declared  against  them. 
Twenty  days  afterwards  the  Thebans  defeated  the  Spartans 
with  great  slaughter  on  the  battle-field  of  Leuctra.  The 
Thebans,  now  formidable,  were  joined  by  allies,  formerly 
much  oppressed  by  Sparta,  and  the  Peloponnesus  was  in- 
vaded, but  without  any  advantage,  as  Epaminondas  was  too 
prudent  to  hazard  an  assault  on  the  city  of  Sparta.  The  next 
year,  however,  he  again  marched  into  the  Peloponnesus, 
laying  waste  the  country  and  taking  some  towns,  but  was 
thwarted  in  capturing  Corinth.  The  change  of  public  favor 
caused  him  upon  his  return  to  be  deprived  of  his  command, 
and  reduced  to  a  private  condition.  But  when  an  expedition 
to  Pherae  was  saved  from  utter  destruction  by  his  ability,  the 
people  of  Thebes  restored  him  to  supreme  command. 

Epaminondas,  taking  advantage  of  new  commotions  in 
the  Peloponnesus,  marched  thither  with  a  powerful  army. 
The  combined  forces  of  the  allies,  Spartans,  Athenians,  Arca- 
dians, etc.,  commanded  by  King  Agesilaus,  were  attacked 
by  the  Thebans  at  Mantinea,  and  completely  routed.  Un- 
happily, Epaminondas  at  the  close  received  a  mortal  wound. 
When  he  was  told  that  his  death  would  immediately  follow 
the  extraction  of  the  javelin,  he  would  not  allow  this  to  be 
done  until  he  had  been  assured  that  his  shield  was  safe,  and 
that  the  victory  was  with  his  countrymen.  Seeing  his  friends' 
tears,  he  said,  cheerfully,  "This  day  is  not  the  end  of  my 
life,  but  the  beginning  of  my  happiness  and  completion  of 
my  glory."  As  they  mourned  for  his  death,  unmarried  and 
childless,  he  said,  "Leuctra  and  Mantinea  are  children 
enough  to  keep  my  name  alive."  Then,  while  others  faltered 
and  evaded  the  sad  work  of  extracting  the  dart,  he  himself 
drew  it  forth  and  expired. 

The  saddened  Thebans  buried  him  where  he  had  died,  and 
raised  on  the  spot  a  column,  bearing  the  figure  of  a  dragon, 


EPAMINONDAS.  35 

in  token  of  his  lineage  from  one  of  the  followers  of  Cadmus. 
They  never  prospered  after  the  grand  fifteen  years  of  the  influ- 
ence of  their  great  Pythagorean  soldier.  With  the  death 
of  this  true  hero,  the  power  of  Thebes  declined  as  rapidly  as 
it  had  formerly  risen. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  LEUCTRA. 

The  field  of  Leuctra  is  well  marked  to  the  present  day  by 
a  tumulus  on  the  summit  of  the  ridge  which  borders  the 
southern  side  of  the  valley  of  Thespise.  This  isolated  ridge 
was  the  position  of  Cleombrotus,  the  Spartan.  The  height, 
on  which  the  Thebans  were  encamped,  was  evidently  a  spur 
of  the  ridge  of  hills  forming  the  southern  wall  of  the  valley 
of  the  Kanavari  river,  which  it  separates  from  the  plain  of 
lyeuctra.  This  plain  does  not  exceed  a  mile  in  width  from 
north  to  south,  except  at  the  eastern  end,  where  there  occurs 
a  gap  between  the  ridge  of  Leuctra  and  the  foot  of  the  downs, 
on  the  summit  of  which  stands  the  city  of  Thebes.  Here,  in 
earlier  times,  Pausanias  had  finally  proved  the  superiority  of 
Hellenic  to  Persian  arms.  From  east  to  west  it  runs  nearly 
five  miles,  and  is  an  admirably  chosen  spot  for  a  pitched 
battle,  since  the  face  of  the  country  is  perfectly  open,  without 
any  natural  obstructions  to  impede  the  shock  of  combatants, 
and  the  hills  are  wide  sheep-walks  to  the  top,  of  no  great 
altitude, — that  of  Leuctra  more  especially, — and  perfectly 
adapted  to  military  movements,  though  perhaps  scarcely 
accessible  to  charging  cavalry. 

Epaminondas  depended  much  on  the  superiority  of  his 
cavalry ;  but  he  neglected  no  precautions  to  ensure  the  victory 
against  his  formidable  opponent.  Cleombrotus  (July  20,  B.  c. 
371)  descended  into  the  plain  with  his  cavalry  in  front  of  his 
heavy-armed  infantry,  who  were  drawn  up  in  line,  each  com- 
pany having  three  shields  in  rank  and  twelve  in  file,  he  him- 
self commanding  the  right  wing,  consisting  of  Spartans. 

Perceiving  this  disposition,  and  knowing,  from  the  im- 
movable valor  of  the  Spartans,  that  a  general  attack  along 
the  front  would  probably  cause  the  defeat  of  his  numerically 
inferior  force,  Epaminondas  formed  his  men  on  an  entirely  new 
principle.  Selecting  his  best  warriors,  and  especially  his  best 


36  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVEXTS. 

file-leaders,  he  drew  them  to  extreme  left,  where  he  arranged 
them, — considerably  in  advance  of  the  centre,  and  this  centre 
itself-  considerably  in  advance  of  the  right,  thus  forming  in 
echelon, — under  his  own  command,  no  less  than  fifty  shields 
in  depth,  intending  by  this  extraordinary  weight  of  his 
column  to  cut  in  two  the  Spartan  right,  and  break  it  up. 
His  own  right  and  centre  were  drawn  up  in  much  shallower 
order,  probably  not  exceeding  the  usual  depth  of  eight 
shields,  for  it  was  his  object,  if  possible,  to  induce  the  enemy 
to  extend  their  own  left  unduly.  Being  actually  inferior  in 
numbers,  while  he  had  reduced  his  general  strength  yet 
farther  by  the  extraordinary  concentration  of  his  masses  on 
the  left,  he  was  obliged  to  make  his  right  shallow,  even  to 
feebleness,  in  order  to  keep  up  the  semblance  of  an  even 
front.  It  appears,  from  Plutarch's  statement,  that  Epami- 
nondas  had  strengthened  his  centre,  so  as  in  some  degree  to 
compensate  for  its  numerical  weakness,  by  the  three  hundred 
known  as  the  Sacred  Band,  who  were  never  beaten  until  they 
fell  to  a  man,  and  lay  as  they  fell 

"  With  their  back  to  the  field  and  their  feet  to  the  foe, 
And  leaving  in  battle  no  blot  on  their  name, 
looked  proudly  to  heaven  from  the  death-bed  of  fame." 

But  that  day  of  disaster  had  not  yet  arrived ;  and  in  this 
furious  hand  to  hand  encounter,  they,  with  their  gallant 
leader,  did  their  duty  well ;,  yet,  but  for  the  new  and  strange 
formation  in  which  they  fought,  they  must  almost  to  a  cer- 
tainty have  suffered  a  terrible  defeat.  From  that  day  forth, 
this  oblique  method  was  the  constant  array  and  order  of  the 
Thebans.  It  was  adopted  by  Philip  of  Macedon,  and  became 
the  favorite  inanceuver  of  his  son,  Alexander  the  Great. 

No  sooner  were  the  two  armies  in  the  plain,  the  '*f  hVbans 
with  their  left  advanced  so  as  almost  to  feel  the  enemy's  right, 
while  their  own  right  was  still  far  retired  from  the  Spartan 
left,  the  cavalry  trumpets  sounded,  and  the  horse  on  both 
sides  encountered  between  the  main  bodies  in  full  career. 

The  Theban  cavalry  were  much  superior,  and  quickly 
scattered  the  Spartan  horse,  who,  falling  back  into  the  lines 
of  their  own  heavy  foot,  threw  them  somewhat  into  disorder 


EPAMINONDAS.  37 

before  the  encounter  of  the  main  battle.  This  must  have 
occurred  toward  the  Theban  right,  where  the  interval  was  the 
widest  between  the  opposing  armies,  and  the  space  between 
the  hills  the  narrowest.  For  since  the  signal  for  the  onset  of 
the  infantry  seems  to  have  been  given  as  soon  as  the  cavalry 
were  no  longer  interposed,  if  the  Spartan  right,  which  first 
came  into  contact  with  the  Boeotians,  had  been  much  shaken, 
— as  they  must  have  been,  had  their  broken  horse  disordered 
them  in  that  quarter, — they  could  never  have  made  such  a 
resistance  as  they  did  to  the  terrible  onset  of  Epaminondas, 
with  his  column  of  fifty  shields.  The  cavalry  on  both  sides, 
therefore,  of  which  we  hear  no  more  during  the  action,  must 
have  been  swept  away,  the  Spartans  in  full  flight,  and  the 
Thebans  in  inconsiderate  pursuit,  down  the  plain  toward 
Thespise  eastward. 

So  soon  as  the  trumpets  sounded,  the  Spartans  led  forth 
at  charging  pace  along  the  whole  front ;  their  left  hurrying 
their  advance,  in  order  to  close  with  the  Theban  right,  which 
rather  fell  back  than  advanced,  though  still  preserving  their 
connection  with  the  centre,  which  met  the  Spartan  right  with 
leveled  pikes,  at  a  full  run.  There  the  battle  raged  fiercely, 
hand  to  hand,  and  was  for  a  long  time  undecided,  since  there 
Epaminondas  met  the  chosen  Spartans,  with  Cleombrotus, 
their  king,  who  would  not  yield  a  step,  but  sustained  the 
shock  of  his  deep  column  with  their  linked  shields,  until 
their  spears  were  broken,  and  it  came  to  the  closest  single 
combat  with  their  short  stabbing  swords.  In  the  meantime, 
their  left,  which  had  been  disordered  somewhat  by  its  own 
flying  horse,  endeavored  to  extend  still  farther  to  the  left,  in 
order  to  outflank  and  surround  the  Theban  right,  with  which 
it  was  not  yet  fairly  engaged.  All  manceuvering  with  so 
heavy  and  unwieldy  a  body  as  the  phalanx,  in  the  face  of  an 
enemy,  was  difficult ;  and  if  attacked  in  the  act  of  deploying 
or  changing  its  front,  that  array,  at  other  times  so  formidable, 
was  the  most  defenceless  and  helpless  of  masses.  Precisely  at 
such  a  moment,  and  in  the  middle  of  such  a  movement, 
Pelopidas  rushed  headlong  with  his  three  hundred  of  the 
Sacred  Band,  serried  in  the  closest  combination,  upon  their 
centre,  giving  them  neither  time  to  extend  as  they  desired, 


38  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

nor  to  contract  their  files  in  order  to  meet  his  shock,  so  that 
they  began  to  waver  and  fall  into  confusion. 

By  this  time,  however,  the  extraordinary  depth,  and  con- 
sequent weight  and  impetus  of  the  terrible  column  of 
Epaminondas  began  to  tell,  the  pressure  of  the  rearmost 
files  bearing  the  foremost  bodily  onward,  and  if  the  front 
men  fell,  others  succeeded  at  once  to  their  places.  And  now 
Cleombrotus  had  fallen,  and  all  the  adjutants ;  and  four  hun- 
dred of  the  seven  hundred  Spartans.  As  the  head  of  the 
assailing  column  met  less  resistance,  it  fell  in  with  a  more 
fiery  impetus,  and  broke  the  Spartan  right  into  fragments,  out- 
flanking it,  moreover,  and  thereby  turning  the  right  of  the 
whole  array.  But  no  sooner  did  the  Spartan  centre,  already 
shaken,  and  their  left,  which  had  scarcely  felt  the  enemy,  see 
the  defeat  of  their  right  wing,  than  they  turned  also  ;  and  the 
forces  opposed  to  them  assuming  the  offensive,  gave  them  no 
time  to  rally.  The  confusion  and  rout  became  general  along 
the  whole  front.  The  loss  of  the  Spartans  was  prodigious, 
considering  that  there  was  no  long  flight  or  fierce  pursuit. 

Diodorus  states  the  loss  of  the  Spartans  at  four  thousand, 
and  that  of  the  Thebans  about  three  hundred ;  but  these 
numbers  cannot  be  exactly  relied  on.  At  all  events  it  was  the 
severest  defeat  ever  as  yet  inflicted  by  one  Hellenic  nation  on 
another.  Sparta  never  again  recovered  from  the  moral  con- 
sequences of  that  overwhelming  defeat,  or  recovered  its  station 
among  the  Hellenic  nations,  although  it  struggled  stoutly  for 
pre-eminence,  and  long  maintained  its  independence. — H.  W. 
HERBERT. 


CHARLES  MARTEL 


I  HEN,  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighth  century, 
the  wave  of  Mohammedan  conquest  was 
sweeping  with  irresistible  force  over  South- 
ern Europe,  the  Franks  formed  a  firm  rock 
on  which  it  spent  its  fury  in  vain.  And  the 
central  figure  in  this  scene, — the  man  who 
is  most  prominently  identified  with  this 
victory  of  the  advancing  civilization  of  the 
West, — was  Charles  Martel.  His  father, 
Pepin  of  Heristal,  Duke  of  Austrasia  and  mayor  of  the 
palace  of  the  Merovingian  kings  of  the  Franks,  had  two 
wives :  Plectrude,  by  v/hom  he  had  a  son,  Grimoald,  and 
Alpa'ide,  who  had  two  sons,  Charles  (born  about  689  A.  D.  ), 
and  Childebrand.  Grimoald  was  assassinated,  and  Charles 
was  suspected  of  complicity  in  the  murder.  Pepin  appointed 
Grimoald' s  son  Theobald,  a  boy  of  six,  his  successor,  setting 
aside  the  claims  of  Charles  and  Childebrand.  On  Pepin' s 
death  (714),  Plectrude,  the  regent,  lost  no  time  in  imprisoning 
Charles  in  the  fortress  of  Cologne  ;  but  not  long  afterward,  in 
715,  the  Austrasiaus  rose  in  revolt,  liberated  him,  and  pro- 
claimed him  Duke  of  Austrasia.  From  this  time  his  life  was 
a  continual  battle,  a  long  struggle,  the  final  outcome  of  which 
was,  as  Guizot  puts  it,  "the  re-establishment  throughout  the 
whole  of  Gaul  of  the  Franco-Gallo-Roman  empire." 

He  took  the  first  step  towards  extending  his  own  authority 
and  consolidating  and  strengthening  the  Frankish  dominion 
by  defeating  the  Neustrians,  and  installing  a  Merovingian 
puppet-king  under  the  name  of  Clotaire  IV.,  he  himself 
adopting  the  title  of  mayor  of  the  palace.  While  he  was 
busy  repulsing  and  attacking  the  Frisons  and  Saxons,  on  the 

39 


40  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

other  side  of  the  Rhine  (715-718),  the  Neustrians  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  Eudes,  Duke  of  Aquitania,  and  advanced 
towards  Soissons,  to  meet  a  common  defeat  in  719,  at  the 
hands  of  Charles,  who  concluded  a  treaty  with  Eudes. 
Chilperic  II.,  the  sluggard  king  (roi  faineant}  of  the  Neus- 
trians, was  generously  treated,  and  at  his  death  was  replaced 
by  Thierry  (or  Theodoric)  IV. ,  another  Merovingian  phantom, 
who  posed  as  king  for  seventeen  years,  while  Charles  ruled 
over  the  country,  repressing  dissensions  within  and  guarding 
it  from  invasion  without,  for  the  Franks  were  incessantly  at 
war  with  their  belligerent  Germanic  neighbors.  But  his  im- 
portance in  history  is  more  directly  due  to  his  victories  over 
the  Saracens,  which  materially  changed  the  course  of  European 
history. 

The  Moslems,  who,  after  their  conquests  in  the  Orient, 
had  passed  into  Europe,  overrunning  Spain  and  conquering 
the  Visigoths,  now  passed  the  Pyrenees  and  threatened  Gaul. 
In  their  first  two  expeditions  they  were  severely  defeated 
by  Eudes,  although  they  captured  Narbonne,  which  they 
made  their  capital.  Under  the  governor-general  of  Spain, 
Abdel-Rhaman  (Abderame),  preparations  were  made  for  a 
fresh  invasion.  Eudes,  sorely  pressed  on  the  south,  had  to 
suffer  also  from  the  inroads,  on  the  north,  of  Charles  Martel, 
who  accused  him  of  not  having  faithfully  observed  the  treaty 
concluded  by  them  in  720.  Abdel-Rhaman  advanced  and 
forced  the  Duke  of  Aquitania  back  upon  Bordeaux,  where  he 
defeated  him  totally  and  plundered  the  city.  Eudes  now  in- 
voked the  aid  of  Charles  Martel  against  their  common  enemy, 
which  was  readily  granted  on  his  oath  of  allegiance.  The 
Arabs  had  meanwhile  spread  over  the  country  between  the 
Garonne  and  the  Loire,  and  had  carried  their  ravages  beyond 
the  latter  river  into  Burgundy.  The  hostile  forces  met 
between  Tours  and  Poictiers,  and  for  a  week  they  remained 
encamped  opposite  to  each  other.  When  the  Arab  cavalry 
finally  attacked,  it  was  received  by  the  Franks  in  serried 
ranks,  and  disorder  spreading  through  the  Mussulman  army 
gave  Charles  a  further  advantage.  Both  armies  retired  to 
their  camps  at  nightfall ;  but  when  the  Franks  turned  out  in 
the  morning  to  renew  the  struggle  they  found  the  enemy's 


CHARLES  MARTEN.  4! 

tents  deserted,  the  Arabs  having  acknowledged  their  total 
defeat  by  decamping  precipitately  during  the  night.  Although 
the  opinions  of  historians  differ  on  this  point,  yet  it  is  a 
popularly  accepted  tradition  that  it  was  his  valor  in  this  battle, 
fought  in  732,  which  gained  him  the  title  of  Martel,  or  "the 
Hammer. ' '  Charles  Martel  defeated  the  Moslems  once  more 
in  738,  but  his  assaults  on  their  capital,  Narbonne,  were  un- 
successful. In  the  following  year,  however,  they  were 
definitely  driven  from  Provence,  and  all  of  Southern  Gaul 
lying  to  the  left  of  the  Rhone  was  incorporated  in  the 
Prankish  kingdom.  But  the  security  of  the  latter  was  still 
threatened  by  Germanic  invasion,  and  it  was  only  after  a  long 
series  of  expeditions  that  the  barbarians  beyond  the  Rhine 
were  finally  repulsed. 

While  Charles  Martel  was  thus  reconstituting  the  Prankish 
domain  in  its  entirety,  Thierry  IV.  died,  in  737 ;  but  the 
throne  was  left  vacant,  the  mayor  keeping  his  old  title,  but 
ruling  with  absolute  authority  until  his  death,  which  over- 
took him  on  October  22,  741,  at  Quiercy  on  the  Oise,  in  the 
full  vigor  of  manhood,  in  the  midst  of  his  activity  and  his 
projects.  He  had  seized  many  possessions  of  the  clergy,  and 
used  them  to  attract  warriors  to  his  flag,  and  this  offence  was 
never  forgiven  him  by  the  church.  In  spite  of  his  great 
services, — the  relief  of  Christianity  from  the  fear  of  Moslem 
conquest,  his  effective  support  of  missions  in  Germany,  his 
protection  of  the  Pope  at  various  times, — he  was  loaded  with 
anathemas  and  maledictions  by  those  whom  he  had  despoiled 
of  their  lands.  On  his  death,  he  divided  his  territory,  which 
had  been  united  with  so  much  trouble,  between  his  sons, 
Pepin  and  Carloman,  the  former  receiving  Neustria,  the  latter 
Austrasia.  But  Carloman  died,  and  Pepin  gained  possession 
of  the  entire  kingdom,  and  assumed  the  title  of  king.  Thus 
did  this  title  of  royalty,  which  had  become  a  meaningless 
name  under  the  last  of  the  Merovingians,  pass  to  the  succes- 
sor of  the  mayors  of  the  palace,  who  ruled  with  the  intelli- 
gence and  energy  wanting  in  those  phantoms  of  regal  power, 
the  sluggard  kings.  And  thus,  also,  were  laid  the  foundations 
of  modern  France. 


42  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  TOURS. 

The  broad  tract  of  champaign  country  which  intervenes 
between  the  cities  of  Poictiers  and  Tours  is  principally  com- 
posed of  a  succession  of  rich  pasture  lands,  which  are  traversed 
and  fertilized  by  the  Cher,  the  Creuse,  the  Vienne,  the  Claine, 
the  Indre,  and  other  tributaries  of  the  River  Loire.  Here  and 
there  the  ground  swells  into  picturesque  eminences,  and  occa- 
sionally a  belt  of  forest  land,  a  brown  heath,  or  a  clustering 
series  of  vineyards  breaks  the  monotony  of  the  wide-spread 
meadows ;  but  the  general  character  of  the  laud  is  that  of  a 
grassy  plain,  and  it  seems  naturally  adapted  for  the  evolutions 
of  numerous  armies,  especially  of  those  vast  bodies  of  cavalry 
which  principally  decided  the  fate  of  nations  during  the  cen- 
turies that  followed  the  downfall  of  Rome,  and  preceded  the 
consolidation  of  the  modern  European  powers. 

This  region  has  been  signalized  by  more  than  one  memo- 
rable conflict ;  but  it  is  principally  interesting  to  the  historian 
by  having  been  the  scene  of  the  great  victory  won  by  Charles 
Martel  over  the  Saracens,  A.D.  732,  which  gave  a  decisive 
check  to  the  career  of  Arab  conquest  in  Western  Europe,  res- 
cued Christendom  from  Islam,  preserved  the  relics  of  ancient 
and  the  germs  of  modern  civilization,  and  re-established  the 
old  superiority  of  the  Indo-European  over  the  Semitic  family 
of  mankind. 

The  monkish  chroniclers,  from  whom  we  are  obliged  to 
glean  a  narrative  of  this  memorable  campaign,  bear  full  evi- 
dence to  the  terror  which  the  Saracen  invasion  inspired,  and 
to  the  agony  of  that  great  struggle.  The  Saracens,  say  they, 
and  their  king,  who  was  called  Abdirames,  came  out  of  Spain, 
with  all  their  wives  and  their  children,  and  their  substance, 
in  such  great  multitudes  that  no  man  could  reckon  or  esti- 
mate them.  They  brought  with  them  all  their  armor,  and 
whatever  they  had,  as  if  they  were  thenceforth  always  to 
dwell  in  France. 

'  Then  Abderrahman,  seeing  the  land  rilled  with  the 
multitude  of  his  army,  pierces  through  the  mountains,  tram- 
ples over  rough  and  level  ground,  plunders  far  into  the 
country  of  the  Franks,  and  smites  all  with  the  sword,  inso- 


CHARLES   MARTEI,.  43 

much  that  when  Eudo  came  to  battle  with  him  at  the  River 
Garonne,  and  fled  before  him,  God  alone  knows  the  number 
of  the  slain.  Then  Abderrahman  pursued  after  Count  Eudo, 
and  while  he  strives  to  spoil  and  burn  the  holy  shrine  at 
Tours,  he  encounters  the  chief  of  the  Austrasian  Franks, 
Charles,  a  man  of  war  from  his  youth  up,  to  whom  Eudo  had 
sent  warning.  There  for  nearly  seven  days  they  strive  in- 
tensely, and  at  last  they  set  themselves  in  battle  array,  and 
the  nations  of  the  North  standing  firm  as  a  wall,  and  impen- 
etrable as  a  zone  of  ice,  utterly  slay  the  Arabs  with  the  edge 
of  the  sword. ' ' 

The  European  writers  all  concur  in  speaking  of  the  fall  of 
Abderrahman  as  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  the  defeat  of 
the  Arabs  ;  who,  according  to  one  writer,  after  finding  that 
their  leader  was  slain,  dispersed  in  the  night,  to  the  agreeable 
surprise  of  the  Christians,  who  expected  the  next  morning  to 
see  them  issue  from  their  tents  and  renew  the  combat.  One 
monkish  chronicler  puts  the  loss  of  the  Arabs  at  375,000  men, 
while  he  says  that  only  1 , 007  Christians  fell ;  a  disparity  of 
loss  which  he  feels  bound  to  account  for  by  a  special  inter- 
position of  Providence.  I  have  translated  above  some  of  the 
most  spirited  passages  of  these  writers ;  but  it  is  impossible 
to  collect  from  them  anything  like  a  full  authentic  descrip- 
tion of  the  great  battle  itself,  or  of  the  operations  which 
preceded  and  followed  it. 

Though,  however,  we  may  have  cause  to  regret  the 
meagreness  and  doubtful  character  of  these  narratives,  we 
have  the  great  advantage  of  being  able  to  compare  the  ac- 
counts given  of  Abderrahman' s  expedition  by  the  national 
writers  of  each  side.  This  is  a  benefit  which  the  inquirer 
into  antiquity  so  seldom  can  obtain,  that  the  fact  of  posses- 
sing it,  in  the  case  of  the  battle  of  Tours,  makes  us  think 
the  historical  testimony  respecting  that  great  event  more 
certain  and  satisfactory  than  is  the  case  in  many  other  in- 
stances where  we  possess  abundant  details  respecting  military 
exploits,  but  where  those  details  come  to  us  from  the  annalist 
of  one  nation  only,  and  where  we  have,  consequently,  no  safe- 
guard against  the  exaggerations,  the  distortions,  and  the 
fictions  which  national  vanity  has  so  often  put  forth  in  the 


44  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

garb  and  under  the  title  of  history.  The  Arabian  writers 
who  recorded  the  conquests  and  wars  of  their  countrymen  in 
Spain  have  narrated  also  the  expedition  into  Gaul  of  their 
great  emir,  and  his  defeat  and  death  near  Tours,  in  battle 
with  the  host  of  the  Franks  under  King  Caldus,  the  name 
into  which  they  metamorphose  Charles  Martel. 

They  tell  us  how  there  was  war  between  the  count  of  the 
Prankish  frontier  and  the  Moslems,  and  how  the  count 
gathered  together  all  his  people,  and  fought  for  a  time  with 
doubtful  success.  "But,''  say  the  Arabian  chroniclers, 
u  Abderrahinan  drove  them  back;  and  the  men  of  Abder- 
rahman  were  puffed  up  in  spirit  by  their  repeated  successes, 
and  they  were  full  of  trust  in  the  valor  and  the  practice  in 
war  of  their  emir.  So  the  Moslems  smote  their  enemies,  and 
passed  the  River  Garonne,  and  laid  waste  the  country,  and 
took  captives  without  number.  And  that  army  went  through 
all  places  like  a  desolating  storm.  Prosperity  made  these 
warriors  insatiable.  At  the  passage  of  the  river,  Abder- 
rahman  overthrew  the  count,  and  the  count  retired  into  his 
stronghold ;  but  the  Moslems  fought  against  it,  and  entered  it 
by  force  and  slew  the  count ;  for  every  thing  gave  way  to  their 
cimeters,  which  were  the  robbers  of  lives.  All  the  nations  of 
the  Franks  trembled  at  that  terrible  army,  and  they  betook 
them  to  their  king  Caldus,  and  told  him  of  the  havoc  made 
by  the  Moslem  horsemen,  and  how  they  rode  at  their  will 
through  all  the  land  of  Narbonne,  Toulouse,  and  Bordeaux, 
and  they  told  the  king  of  the  death  of  their  count.  Then  the 
king  bade  them  be  of  good  cheer,  and  offered  to  aid  them. 
And  in  the  ii4th  year  (of  the  Hegira)  he  mounted  his  horse, 
and  he  took  with  him  a  host  that  could  not  be  numbered,  and 
went  against  the  Moslems.  And  he  came  upon  them  at  the 
great  city  of  Tours.  And  Abderrahman  and  other  prudent 
cavaliers  saw  the  disorder  of  the  Moslem  troops,  who  were 
loaded  with  spoil ;  but  they  did  not  venture  to  displease  the 
soldiers  by  ordering  them  to  abandon  every  thing  except  their 
arms  and  war-horses.  And  Abderrahinan  trusted  in  the  valor 
of  his  soldiers,  and  in  the  good  fortune  which  had  ever 
attended  him.  But  (the  Arab  writer  remarks)  such  defect  of 
discipline  always  is  fatal  to  armies.  So  Abderrahman  and 


CHARLES  MARTEN.  45 

his  host  attacked  Tours  to  gain  still  more  spoil,  and  they 
fought  against  it  so  fiercely  that  they  stormed  the  city  almost 
before  the  eyes  of  the  army  that  came  to  save  it ;  and  the  fury 
and  the  cruelty  of  the  Moslems  toward  the  inhabitants  of  the 
city  was  like  the  fury  and  cruelty  of  raging  tigers.  It  was 
manifest,"  adds  the  Arab,  "that  God's  chastisement  was  sure 
to  follow  such  excesses ;  and  Fortune  thereupon  turned  her 
back  upon  the  Moslems. 

1 '  Near  the  River  O war  (probably  the  Loire)  the  two  great 
hosts  of  the  two  languages  and  the  two  creeds  were  set  in 
array  against  each  other.  The  hearts  of  Abderrahman,  his 
captains,  and  his  men,  were  rilled  with  wrath  and  pride,  and 
they  were  the  first  to  begin  the  fight.  The  Moslem  horsemen 
dashed  fierce  and  frequent  forward  against  the  battalions  of 
the  Franks,  who  resisted  manfully,  and  many  fell  dead  on 
either  side,  until  the  going  down  of  the  sun.  Night  parted 
the  two  armies ;  but  in  the  gray  of  the  morning  the  Moslems 
returned  to  the  battle.  Their  cavaliers  had  soon  hewn  their 
way  into  the  centre  of  the  Christian  host.  But  many  of  the 
Moslems  were  fearful  for  the  safety  of  the  spoil  which  they 
had  stored  in  their  tents,  and  a  false  cry  arose  in  their  ranks 
that  some  of  the  enemy  were  plundering  the  camp ;  where- 
upon several  squadrons  of  the  Moslem  horsemen  rode  off  to 
protect  their  tents.  But  it  seemed  as  if  they  fled  ;  and  all  the 
host  was  troubled.  And  while  Abderrahman  strove  to  check 
their  tumult,  and  to  lead  them  back  to  battle,  the  warriors  of 
the  Franks  came  around  him,  and  he  was  pierced  through 
with  many  spears,  so  that  he  died.  Then  all  the  host  fled 
before  the  enemy  and  many  died  in  the  flight.  This  deadly 
defeat  of  the  Moslems,  and  the  loss  of  the  great  leader  and 
good  cavalier  Abderrahman,  took  place  in  the  hundred  and 
fifteenth  year. ' ' 

It  would  be  difficult  to  expect  from  an  adversary  a  more 
explicit  confession  of  having  been  thoroughly  vanquished 
than  the  Arabs  here  accord  to  the  Europeans.  The  points 
on  which  their  narrative  differs  from  those  of  the  Christians — 
as  to  how  many  days  the  conflict  lasted,  whether  the  assailed 
city  was  actually  rescued  or  not.  and  the  like — are  of  little 
moment  compared  with  the  admitted  great  fact  that  there  was 


46  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

a  decisive  trial  of  strength  between  Frank  and  Saracen,  in 
which  the  former  conquered.  The  enduring  importance  of 
the  battle  of  Tours  in  the  eyes  of  the  Moslems  is  attested  not 
only  by  the  expressions  of  "the  deadly  battle"  and  "the 
disgraceful  overthrow"  which  their  writers  constantly  em- 
ploy when  referring  to  it,  but  also  by  the  fact  that  no  more 
serious  attempts  at  conquest  beyond  the  Pyrenees  were  made 
by  the  Saracens.  Charles  Martel,  and  his  son  and  grandson, 
were  left  at  leisure  to  consolidate  and  extend  their  power. 
The  new  Christian  Roman  empire  of  the  West,  which  the 
genius  of  Charlemagne  founded,  and  throughout  which  his 
iron  will  imposed  peace  on  the  old  anarchy  of  creeds  and 
races,  did  not  indeed  retain  its  integrity  after  its  great  ruler's 
death.  Fresh  troubles  came  over  Europe  ;  but  Christendom, 
though  disunited,  was  safe.  The  progress  of  civilization,  and 
the  development  of  the  nationalities  and  governments  of 
modern  Europe,  from  that  time  forth  went  forward  in  not 
uninterrupted,  but  ultimately  certain  career. 

— SIR  EDWARD  S.  CREASY. 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 

ItOS  AJ4Cwu::;c,  CRU. 


5.J.  FERRIS.  PINX. 


VTILLIOJuf  THE  CONQUEROR  JIT  HASTINGS. 


,    WILLIAM  THE  CONQUEROR 


his 


ILLJAM  I. ,  King  of  England  and  surnamed 
the  Conqueror,  was  the  sixth  duke  of 
Normandy  in  direct  descent,  from  the 
famous  Rollo.  He  was  born  in  1024,  the 
natural  son  of  Duke  Robert  le  Diable, 
who  had  been  captivated  with  the 
charms  of  Arietta,  a  tanner's  daughter. 
In  default  of  legitimate  sons,  William 
was  accepted  by  the  nobles  as  the  heir, 
eleventh  year  succeeded  to  the  rule  of  the 


and   in 
Duchy. 

During  his  minority  anarchy  prevailed  ;  but  as  he 
approached  manhood  he  gradually  established  his  authority, 
and  when  a  general  conspiracy  was  formed  in  1047,  ne  ^TS^ 
escaped  by  riding  hard  all  night  and  afterwards  completely 
defeated  the  rebels.  In  1051  he  married  Matilda,  Countess  of 
Flanders,  though  the  Church  opposed  the  marriage  as 
uncanonical,  and  a  dispensation  was  not  obtained  until  some 
years  later.  This  alliance  had  greatly  increased  William's 
strength  ;  but  Henry  I.  of  France,  who  had  heretofore  aided 
him,  now  turned  against  him,  as  becoming  dangerous. 
Alternate  war  and  truce  succeeded  until  Henry's  death  in 
1060  ;  but  William  maintained  his  possessions,  and  by  favor- 
able chances  soon  enlarged  them. 

In  1051  William  had  visited  England  and  had  obtained 
from  Edward  the  Confessor,  the  childless  King  of  Saxon 
England,  at  the  instigation  of  the  Norman  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  some  promise  or  reason  to  regard  himself  as  heir 
to  the  English  throne.  But  Harold,  the  son  of  the  great 
Earl  Godwin,  was  the  bravest  and  most  popular  chieftain  in 

47 


43  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

that  land,  and  by  the  people's  choice  the  destined  king.  In 
1065  Harold  visited  the  ducal  court  and  found  himself  in  his 
rival's  power.  William  made  skillful  use  of  the  opportunity, 
requesting  Harold  to  agree  to  assist  him  in  obtaining  the 
promised  throne.  When  Harold  assented  he  was  required  to 
do  homage  to  William  as  the  heir  apparent  before  a  full 
assembly  of  Norman  barons.  Finally  the  duke  conducted  him 
to  the  council-room,  and  there  exacted  an  oath  from  his  titular 
guest  and  real  captive  that  Harold  would  fulfil  his  promises. 
Then  William  raised  the  cover  from  the  chest  on  which  the 
missal  rested  which  Harold  had  touched  when  taking  the 
oath,  and  showed  that  it  contained  all  the  most  precious  relics 
of  saints  in  Normandy.  Such  is  the  Norman  chronicler's 
account  of  this  strange  transaction. 

Harold  was  then  permitted  to  return  to  England,  and  both 
parties  awaited  the  death  of  the  Confessor.     But  when  that 
death  occurred  in  January,  1066,  Harold  assumed  the  crown,  % 
and  renounced  his  oath   as  having  been  obtained  by  com-  \ 
pulsion.     Some  English  authorities  consider  both  the  oath    I 
and  the  renunciation  doubtful.     The   Pope,  however,  sup-    *' 
ported  William's  claim  to  the  crown  of  England,  and  sent   / 
him  a  ring  and  a  banner  as   symbols   that   the  blessing  of  ^ 
Heaven  was  on  his  claim.     In  assertion  of  this  claim  William 
landed  at  Pevensey  in  England  with  60,000  troops.     Harold 
had  just  won,  near  York  in  the  north  of  England,  a  great 
victory  over  his  banished   brother  Tostig  and   the  king  of 
Norway.     He  now  hastened  southward  by  forced  marches  to 
meet  the  Norman  invaders.     In  the  great  battle  that  ensued 
near  Hastings  on  the  I4th  of  October,  King  Harold's  birthday, 
the  Saxons,  after  an  obstinate  contest,  were  finally  defeated, 
and  Harold  himself  was  slain. 

William,  having  thus  won  the  title  of  Conqueror,  at  once 
marched  to  London,  and  on  Christmas  day  was  solemnly 
crowned  King  of  England.  In  consequence  of  his  tyranny 
rebellions  often  occurred,  but  were  quelled  with  the  greatest 
severity.  After  one  that  he  suppressed  in  the  north  he  turned 
the  whole  country,  between  York  and  Durham,  into  a  wil- 
derness, and  100,000  of  both  sexes  and  all  ages  are  said  to 
have  perished. 


THE   CONQUEROR.  49 

William  divided  the  lands  into  baronies,  as  rewards  for  his 
faithful  followers,  thus  introducing  the  feudal  system.  He 
reduced  the  property  of  the  clergy  to  a  like  tenure,  expelled 
the  English  churchmen  and  placed  Normans  in  their  stead. 
The  record  of  the  general  survey  of  the  kingdom,  instituted 
by  him,  is  still  preserved,  and  is  called  the  Domesday  Book. 
By  means  of  it  he  obtained  a  complete  account  of  all  estates 
and  their  revenues.  His  New  Forest,  established  solely  for 
the  pleasures  of  the  chase,  was  acquired  by  the  laying  waste 
villages,  convents  and  churches  for  thirty  miles  round. 
Poaching  in  this  domain  was  made  a  capital  offence.  He  not 
only  divided  the  lands  of  the  Saxons  among  his  followers, 
but  enforced  the  sole  use  of  the  Norman  language  in  every 
department  of  government,  and  to  prevent  nocturnal  conspi- 
racies enacted  the  Curfew  law,  which  required  the  extinction 
of  every  light,  at  8  o'clock  in  the  evening,  at  the  sound  of 
the  bell. 

From  his  vigorous  and  stern  administration  of  English 
affairs,  William  was  recalled  to  the  Continent,  the  king  of 
France  having  incited  the  barons  in  Normandy  to  rebel. 
William  invaded  the  French  dominions,  but  being  injured  by 
striking  on  the  iron  pommel  of  his  saddle  from  the  stumbling 
of  his  horse,  he  died  September  gth,  1087,  near  Rouen,  in 
the  sixty-third  year  of  his  age. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  HASTINGS. 

William  with  60,000  Normans,  landed  in  Sussex,  England, 
on  the  29th  of  September,  1066,  and  encamped  near  Hast- 
ings. Harold  was  at  York,  rejoicing  over  his  hard-won 
victory  over  the  Norwegian  King  Harold  Hardrada.  Sixteen 
days  elapsed  ere  Harold's  army,  inferior  in  number  and 
exhausted  by  hard  marches,  reached  the  Norman  lines. 

The  Norman  outposts  were  first  aware  of  the  coming 
Saxons,  and  falling  back  announced  that  the  foe  was  advanc- 
ing with  furious  speed.  Harold  hoped  to  surprise  the 
enemy ;  but  receiving  intelligence  of  their  position  and 
strength,  he  suddenly  changed  his  plans  and  fortified  himself 
on  the  hill  of  Senlac,  seven  miles  from  Hastings.  His 
position  was  a  strong  one,  surrounded  by  ditches  and 
4 


50  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

palisades.  The  Normans,  quitting  Hastings,  occupied  a 
position  in  front  of  the  Saxons,  who  spent  the  night  in 
feasting  and  the  singing  of  their  old  patriotic  songs,  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  Normans  listened  to  the  chanting 
of  litanies  by  their  priests,  confessed  themselves,  and  took 
the  sacrament  thousands  at  a  time. 

At  the  dawn  of  the  eventful  day — Saturday,  October 
I4th,  1066 — William's  half  brother,  Odo,  Bishop  of  Bayeitx, 
dressed  in  a  coat  of  mail  beneath  his  ecclesiastical  robes, 
celebrated  mass  and  pronounced  his  benediction  on  the 
troops.  The  Norman  force  was  divided  into  three  columns. 
Mounted  on  a  magnificent  charger,  William  was  at  the  head 
of  one  column.  He  wore  round  his  neck  some  of  the  relics 
on  which  Harold  had  sworn.  The  Pope's  banner  was  borne 
aloft  amidst  the  Norman  host. 

The  battle  began  at  9  o'clock  of  the  morning  by  the 
advance  of  the  Normans  to  the  foot  of  the  hill.  At  the  first 
sound  of  the  trumpet,  their  whole  line  of  archers  shot  forth 
their  arrows,  but  with  no  effect.  The  heavy-foot  immedi- 
ately attacked  the  palisade,  while  a  shower  of  javelins 
disordered  their  approach.  Their  infantry  could  make  no 
breach.  Their  cavalry  now  charged  upon  the  defenders  ;  but 
their  broadswords  clashed  in  vain  against  the  two-handed 
axes.  Few  who  came  within  the  sweep  of  an  English  axe 
ever  lived  to  strike  another  blow.  Rank  after  rank  of  the 
Norman  chivalry  pressed  on  to  the  unavailing  task. 

The  English  had  well  withstood  their  ground.  The 
Normans  lost  heart :  their  auxiliaries  on  the  left  gave  way. 
Horse  and  foot  alike,  they  fled.  Some  English  troops, 
despite  of  the  injunctions  of  Harold,  pursued  the  fugitives. 
The  whole  of  William's  left  wing  was  thrown  into  utter 
confusion.  The  press  of  the  fugitives  disordered  the  centre 
ranks,  and  soon  the  whole  of  the  assailing  hosts  was  falling 
back.  For  the  moment,  the  day  seemed  lost.  But  the 
strong  heart  of  William  failed  him  not,  and  by  his  single 
prowess  and  presence  of  mind  he  recalled  his  flying  troops. 
He  tore  his  helmet  from  his  head,  and  called  back  his  men  to 
the  attack.  "Madmen,"  he  cried,  "  behold  me.  Why  flee 
ye  ?  Death  is  behind  you,  victory  is  before  you.  I  live,  and 


THE   CONQUEROR.  5! 

by  God's  grace  I  will  conquer."  With  a  spear,  snatched,  it 
may  be,  from  some  comrade,  he  met  or  pursued  the  fugitives, 
driving  them  back  by  main  force.  The  bold  words  and 
gestures  of  the  Duke  restored  the  spirits  of  his  men,  and  his 
knights  once  more  pressed  on,  sword  in  hand,  around  him. 
The  Breton  infantry  themselves,  chased  as  they  were  across 
the  field  by  the  English,  now  turned  and  cut  down  their 
pursuers. 

A  new  act  in  the  awful  drama  of  that  day  has  now  begun. 

.  .  .  The  Duke  himself,  his  relics  round  his  neck, 
spurred  on  right  in  the  teeth  of  the  English  King.  Before 
William  could  come  to  hand-strokes  with  Harold,  a  spear, 
hurled  by  the  hand  of  Earl  Gyrth,  checked  his  progress. 
The  weapon  so  far  missed  its  aim  that  the  Duke  was  himself 
unhurt.  But  his  noble  Spanish  horse,  the  first  of  three  that 
died  under  him  that  day,  fell  to  the  ground.  William  rose  to 
his  feet ;  Duke  and  Earl  met  face  to  face,  and  the  English 
hero  fell  crushed  beneath  the  stroke  of  the  Duke's  mace. 
The  day  might  seem  to  be  turning  against  England  when  a 
son  of  Godwin  had  fallen.  Nor  did  he  fall  alone  ;  close  at 
his  side,  L,eofwine,  fighting  sword  in  hand,  was  smitten  to 
the  earth.  Of  the  valiant  band  of  sons  who  had  surrounded 
Godwin  on  the  great  day  of  his  return,  Harold  now  stood 
alone. 

William,  again  mounted,  was  soon  again  dealing  wounds 
and  death  among  the  defenders  of  England.  But  the  deed 
and  the  fate  of  Gyrth  were  soon  repeated.  The  spear  of 
another  Englishman  brought  William's  horse  to  the  ground, 
and  he,  too,  like  Gyrth,  paid  the  penalty  of  his  exploit  by 
death  at  the  Duke's  own  hand. 

The  second  attack  had,  indeed,  to  some  extent  prevailed  ; 
the  barricade  was  now  in  some  places  broken  down.  .  .  . 
The  shield-wall  still  stood  behind  the  palisade,  and  every 
Frenchman  who  had  pressed  within  the  English  enclosure 
had  paid  for  his  daring  with  his  life.  It  was  still  plain  that 
to  scale  the  hill  by  any  direct  attack  of  the  Norman  horsemen 
was  a  hopeless  undertaking. 

William  had  marked  with  pleasure  that  the  late  flight  of 
his  troops  had  beguiled  a  portion  of  the  English  to  forsake  their 


52  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

firm  array  and  their  strong  position.  If  by  any  means  any 
large  portion  of  the  English  army  could  be  drawn  down  from 
the  heights,  an  entrance  might  be  made  at  the  points  where 
the  barricade  was  already  weakened.  He  therefore  ventured 
on  a  daring  stratagem.  He  gave  his  orders  accordingly.  A 
portion  of  the  army,  seemingly  the  left  wing,  which  had  so 
lately  fled  in  earnest,  now  again  turned  in  apparent  flight.  . 
.  .  The  English  on  the  right  wing,  mainly  the  irregular 
levies,  rushed  down  and  pursued  them  with  shouts  of  delight. 
But  the  pursued  turned  on  the  pursuing  English,  .... 
and  the  pursuers  now  themselves  fled  in  earnest.  Yet,  undis- 
ciplined and  foolhardy  as  their  conduct  had  been,  they  found 
the  means  to  take  a  special  revenge  for  the  fraud  that  had 
been  played  off  upon  them.  The  importance  of  the  small 
outlying  hill  now  came  into  full  play.  It  was  occupied  and 
gallantly  defended.  With  a  shower  of  darts  and  stones  they 
overwhelmed  a  body  of  French  who  attacked  them. 

The  men  who  had  committed  the  great  error  of  pursuing 
the  apparent  fugitives  had  thus,  as  far  as  they  themselves 
were  concerned,  retrieved  their  error  skillfully.  But  the  error 
was  none  the  less  fatal  to  England.  The  Duke's  great  object 
was  now  gained ;  the  main  end  of  Harold's  skillful  tactics 
had  been  frustrated  by  the  inconsiderate  ardor  of  the  least 
valuable  portion  of  his  troops.  The  pursuing  English  had 
left  the  most  easily  accessible  portion  of  the  hill  open  to  the 
approach  of  the  enemy.  The  Normans  were  at  last  on  the 
hill.  Instead  of  having  to  cut  their  way  up  the  slope  and 
through  the  palisades,  they  could  now  charge  to  the  east,  with 
a  slight  inclination  of  the  ground  in  their  favor,  directly 
against  the  defenders  of  the  Standard. 

Nevertheless,  the  hill,  narrow  and  in  some  places  with 
steep  sides,  was  by  no  means  suited  for  the  evolutions  of 
cavalry,  and,  though  the  English  palisade  was  gone,  the 
English  shield-wall  was  still  a  formidable  hindrance  in  the 
way  of  the  assailants.  It  was  still  the  hardest  of  tasks  to 
surround  their  bristling  lines.  The  array  of  the  English  was 
so  close  that  they  moved  only  when  they  were  dead,  they 
stirred  not  at  all  while  they  were  alive.  That  array  of  the 
shield-wall  was  still  kept 


WIUJAM  THE  CONQUEROR.  53 

The  fight  had  already  been  raging  for  six  hours,  and  as 

yet  its  result  was  far  from  certain The  two  rivals 

never  actually  met ;  William,  we  are  told,  sought  earnestly  to 
meet  his  enemy  face  to  face,  but  never  succeeded.  Many  of 
the  best  and  bravest  of  England  had  died,  but  not  a  man  had 
fled  ;  the  Standard  still  waved  as  proudly  as  ever ;  the  King 

still  fought  beneath  it New  efforts,  new  devices, 

were  needed  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  English,  dimin- 
ished as  were  their  numbers.  The  Duke  ordered  his  archers 
to  shoot  up  in  the  air,  that  their  arrows  might,  as  it  were,  fall 
straight  from  heaven.  The  effect  was  immediate  and  fearful. 
No  other  device  of  the  wily  Duke  that  day  did  such  frightful 
execution.  Helmets  were  pierced  ;  eyes  were  put  out.  .  .  . 
There  was  one  point  of  the  hill  at  which  the  Norman  bow- 
men were  bidden  specially  to  aim.  As  twilight  was  coming 
on,  a  mighty  shower  of  arrows  was  launched  on  its  deadly 
errand  against  the  defenders  of  the  Standard.  At  last,  an 
arrow,  more  charged  with  destiny  than  its  fellows,  falling  like 
a  bolt  from  heaven,  pierced  the  King's  right  eye  ;  he  clutched 
convulsively  at  the  weapon,  he  broke  off  the  shaft,  his  axe 
dropped  from  his  hand,  and  he  sank  in  agony  at  the  foot  of  the 
Standard.  His  comrades  still  fought.  Four  Norman  knights 
rushed  upon  him  and  despatched  him  with  various  wounds. 
The  Latin  poet  of  the  battle  describes  this  inglorious  exploit 
with  great  glee. 

Such  was  the  measure  which  the  boasted  chivalry  of 
Normandy  meted  out  to  a  prince  who  had  never  dealt  harshly 
or  cruelly  by  either  a  domestic  or  a  foreign  foe 

Harold  had  fallen,  as  his  valiant  brothers  had  fallen  before 
him.  The  event  too  truly  showed  that  England  had  fallen 
with  the  sons  of  Godwin ;  that,  as  ever  in  this  age,  everything 
turned  on  the  life  of  one  man. 

As  long  as  there  was  a  ray  of  light  the  personal  following 
of  King  Harold  continued  the  unequal  strife.  Quarter  was 
neither  given  nor  asked  ;  not  a  man  of  the  comitatus  fled  ;  not 
a  man  was  taken  captive.  Under  cover  of  the  darkness,  the 
light-armed  took  to  flight. 

Looking  at  the  fight  of  Senlac  simply  as  a  battle,  it  is  one 
of  the  most  memorable  in  all  military  history.  Two  utterly 


54  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

opposite  systems  of  warfare  came  into  conflict  under  two  com- 
manders, each  worthily  matched  against  the  other :  the  con- 
summate skill  with  which  Harold  chose  his  position ;  the 
wonderful  readiness  with  which  William  formed  and  varied 
his  plans  as  occasion  served.  The  Normans  came  again  and 
again  to  the  charge  ;  they  knew  how  to  carry  out  successfully 
the  elaborate  stratagem  of  the  feigned  flight.  Yet  almost 
more  admirable  is  the  long,  stubborn  endurance  of  the  Eng- 
lish, keeping  their  post  through  nine  hours  of  constant  de- 
fence. 

A  place  of  slaughter  indeed  it  was,  where,  from  morn  till 
twilight  the  axe  and  javelin  of  England,  the  lance  and  bow 
of  Normandy  had  done  their  deadly  work  at  the  bidding  of 
the  two  mightiest  captains  upon  earth.  Dead  and  dying  men 
lay  close  together ;  nowhere  were  they  heaped  so  thickly  as 
around  the  fallen  Standard  of  England.  There,  where  the 
flower  of  England's  nobility  and  soldiery  lay  stretched  in 
death,  the  Conqueror  knelt,  gave  his  thanks  to  God,  and  bade 
his  own  banner  to  be  planted.  Then  he  took  off  his  armor ; 
his  shield  and  helmet  were  seen  to  be  dinted  with  many 
heavy  blows,  but  the  person  of  the  Conqueror  was  unhurt. 
He  was  hailed  by  the  loud  applause  of  his  troops,  likening 
him  to  Roland  and  Oliver  and  all  the  heroes  of  old.  Again 
he  returned  thanks  to  God,  again  he  thanked  his  faithful 
followers,  and  sat  down  to  eat  and  drink  among  the  dead. — 
EDWARD  A.  FREEMAN. 


DWARD  III.,  of  England,  and  seventh  king 
of  the  family  of  the  Plantagenets,  was  born 
November  13,  1312.  At  the  age  of  fourteen, 
in  consequence  of  the  deposal  of  his  father, 
Edward  II.,  he  became  Regent ;  and  a  year 
afterwards,  upon  his  father's  death,  he  was 
proclaimed  king.  In  his  eighteenth  year, 
he  overcame  the  domination  of  his  mother, 
Isabella,  and  her  favorite,  Roger  Mortimer 
(Earl  of  March).  They  had  held  absolute  control  of 
the  government.  Mortimer  was  executed,  and  the  queen- 
mother  was  forced  into  strict  retirement  for  the  rest  of  her 
long  life. 

Edward,  henceforth  untrammeled,  began  now  that  career 
of  conquest  that  was  to  add  so  greatly  to  the  military  renown 
of  England,  though  in  the  end  there  was  little  permanent 
addition  to  her  power. 

The  subjection  of  Scotland  was  the  initiative.  In  the 
interest  of  Edward  Baliol,  who  offered  vassalage,  King 
Edward  besieged  Berwick.  The  Scots,  under  the  Regent, 
Douglas,  in  attempting  to  raise  the  siege,  brought  on  the 
bloody  battle  of  Halidon  Hill,  July  19,  1333,  in  which  they 
were  badly  defeated,  with  a  loss  of  30,000.  All  the  Scottish 
nobles  of  distinction  were  slain  or  taken  prisoners.  Douglas 
was  killed. 

France  was  now  at  the  commencement  of  the  era,  called 
in  her  annals  the  ' '  Hundred  Years  War. ' '  She  had  not  the 
territorial  area  now  included  in  her  domain. 

Philip  de  Valois  having  obtained  the  crown,  Edward, 
who  had  been  also  a  claimant,  submitted  his  homage  to 

55 


56  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

Philip,  at  Amiens.  His  claim  to  the  French  crown  was 
based  upon  the  rights  of  his  mother,  Isabella,  the  daughter 
of  Philip  le  Bel.  At  the  suggestion  of  James  van  Arteveld, 
the  "-Brewer  of  Ghent,"  Edward  renewed  his  claim  to  the 
throne  of  France. 

On  June  22,  1340,  Edward  won  a  great  naval  victory  over 
the  French  at  Sluys,  off  the  coast  of  Flanders,  in  which  the 
French  lost  230  ships  and  many  thousands  slain. 

The  forays  of  the  English  upon  the  French  continued 
with  varying  fortunes  till,  in  1346,  Edward  found  it  necessary 
to  take  charge  personally.  He  embarked  at  Southampton 
with  a  fleet  of  a  thousand  sail,  accompanied  by  his  chief 
nobility  and  by  his  eldest  son,  the  Prince  of  Wales,  (after- 
wards named  the  "  Black  Prince,"  from  his  wearing  of  black 
armor)  then  in  his  sixteenth  year. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  CRECY. 

The  English  troops  landed  at  La  Hogue,  in  Normandy. 
The  city  of  Caen  was  taken.  By  a  feint  upon  Paris,  Edward 
crossed  the  Seine,  advanced  towards  the  Somme,  which  he 
crossed  over  near  Abbeville,  and  halted  soon  at  Crecy,  where 
he  chose  his  positions,  and  awaited  the  shock  of  the  enemy. 
He  arranged  his  army  in  three  divisions.  The  first,  under 
command  of  the  "  Black  Prince,"  consisted  of  nearly  4,000 
men,  of  whom  2,000  were  archers.  The  second  division  was 
placed  behind  them,  and  slightly  on  their  flank.  The  third 
division  formed  a  reserve  under  the  King,  on  some  rising 
ground  in  the  rear,  and  consisted  of  about  3,000  men,  of 
whom  2,000  were  archers.  According  to  Sir  John  Froissart, 
the  English  army  amounted  to  8,000  men,  but  the  prob- 
ability is  that  it  numbered  nearly  30,000.  As  his  army 
was  subject  to  the  danger  of  being  surrounded  by  that 
of  the  French,  consisting  of  about  100,000  men,  Edward 
guarded  his  flanks  by  causing  entrenchments  to  be  thrown 
up.  Thus,  all  conceivable  contingencies  provided  for,  he  and 
the  Prince  of  Wales  took  the  sacrament  with  great  apparent 
devotion. 

The  French  army,  under  King  Philip,  marched  from 
Abbeville  at  the  dawn  of  Saturday,  August  26,  1346,  and 


EDWARD  III.    AND    "THE   BI,ACK   PRINCE."  57 

arrived  at  Crecy  in  much  confusion,  consequent  upon  the 
forced  marches  it  had  made  to  overtake  the  English.  Philip 
was  confident  in  his  superior  numbers  ;  and  his  troops  were 
so  impatient  that  no  orders  could  restrain  their  ardor.  He 
divided  his  army  into  three  corps,  thus  corresponding  to 
those  of  the  English.  The  first,  consisting  of  15,000 
Genoese  crossbow  men,  under  King  John  of  Bohemia  ;  the 
second,  in  charge  of  the  Count  d'Alenson  ;  and  the  third, 
under  himself. 

About  3  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  Philip  began  the 
battle.  He  ordered  the  Genoese  to  attack  the  English  line. 
With  shouts  for  "God  and  Saint  Denis,"  they  advanced, 
but  soon  their  bowstrings  relaxed,  in  consequence  of  a  heavy 
shower  of  rain.  On  the  other  hand,  the  English  archers 
had  kept  their  bows  in  their  cases,  and  now,  whilst  the 
sunshine  dazzled  the  vision  of  the  foe,  let  drive  their  arrows 
thick  and  fast  into  their  ranks.  The  "  Black  Prince," 
taking  advantage  of  their  confusion,  ordered  his  line  to 
charge.  But  now,  the  cavalry  of  Count  d'Alengon  wheeling 
around,  attempted  to  hem  in  the  Prince's  troops.  The 
Earls  of  Northampton  and  Arundel,  apprehensive  that  the 
Prince's  position  was  very  critical,  despatched  an  officer  to  the 
King  asking  for  aid.  The  King,  who,  from  the  eminence, 
had  viewed  the  engagement,  demanded  if  his  son  were  dead  ; 
but  being  answered  in  the  negative,  he  replied,  "  Then,  tell 
my  generals  that  he  shall  have  no  assistance  from  me  ;  let 
him  show  himself  worthy  of  the  profession  of  arms,  and  let 
him  be  indebted  to  his  own  merit  alone  for  victory. ' '  The 
u  Black  Prince "  threw  himself  upon  the  French  cavalry, 
who  upon  the  death  of  their  leader,  the  Count  d'Alen^on, 
were  thrown  into  the  greatest  disorder.  Vainly  King  Philip 
tried  to  animate  his  troops  ;  the  total  overthrow  of  his  army 
had  begun,  and  he  was  forced  to  accompany  his  army  in  its 
flight.  Not  till  morning  of  the  next  day  was  it  known  that 
the  whole  French  army  had  been  routed.  The  loss  of  the 
French  amounted  to  30,000  men,  exclusive  of  about  1,200 
knights  and  barons. 

It  is  said  that  Edward  first  made  use  of  artillery  at  this 
battle  ;  that  the  "  Black  Prince"  himself  slew  the  King  of 


58  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

Bohemia,  whose  crest  was  three  ostrich  feathers,  with  the 
motto,  Ich  dien, — "I  serve."  As  a  memento  of  the 
victory,  it  was  added  to  the  arms  of  the  "  Black  Prince," 
and  has  remained  the  insignia  of  each  succeeding  Prince  of 
Wales. 

Thus  was  lost  the  battle  of  Crecy,  the  greatest  battle  on 
French  soil,  since  that  fought  by  Charles  Martel  at  Tours. 
At  Crecy,  fell  the  Duke  of  Lorraine,  the  Counts  of  Alen$on, 
Flanders,  Nevers,  Blois,  Harcourt,  the  Lord  of  Tours,  the 
Archbishops  of  Nismes,  and  of  Sens,  the  Grand  Prior  of  the 
Hospital  of  St.  John,  the  Count  of  Savoy — the  very  flower  of 
the  French  chivalry. 

Edward  quickly  advanced  to  the  siege  of  Calais,  which 
required  nearly  a  year  to  enforce  its  surrender.  Hereupon 
occurred  the  remarkable  event  of  the  intercession  of  Queen 
Philippa  on  behalf  of  the  six  burghers,  who  had  offered  them- 
selves as  a  vicarious  sacrifice  to  appease  the  wrath  of  Edward 
against  their  fellow  townsmen.  It  is  believed  that  he  would 
have  inflicted  the  punishment  of  death  upon  them  but  for  her 
efforts  to  save  them. 

After  a  truce  of  eight  years,  hostilities  were  renewed. 
Philip  was  dead,  and  John  was  now  the  King  of  France. 

In  1355,  the  "Black  Prince"  landed  in  France;  but  it 
was  not  till  the  next  year  that  John  proceeded  to  meet  him  ; 
the  Prince's  army,  consisting  of  twelve  thousand  men,  having 
penetrated  into  the  interior.  The  Prince's  intention  was  to 
form  a  junction  with  the  troops  under  the  Duke  of  Lancaster. 
But  he  found  himself  foiled,  the  country  before  him  practically 
barricaded,  and  the  bridges  behind  him  destroyed,  thereby 
cutting  off  all  retreat.  The  French,  sixty  thousand  strong, 
under  the  command  of  John,  were  advancing  upon  him,  and 
the  Prince  found  himself  forced  to  await  their  approach. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  POITIERS. 

The  battle-field — it  still  can  be  recognized — in  its  area 
contained  "two  ridges  of  rising  ground,  parted  by  a  gentle 
hollow."  A  forest  stood  back  of  the  higher  ridge,  and  the 
ridge  itself  was  only  attainable  by  means  of  a  long,  narrow 
lane,  leading  up  from  the  hollow  through  a  dense  growth  of 


EDWARD   III.    AND    "THE   BLACK   PRINCE."  59 

underbrush  and  rows  of  hedges.  During  the  night,  the  Prince 
had  taken  the  precaution  to  thoroughly  entrench  himself  on 
this  ridge — a  strong  position  of  itself.  He  placed  three 
hundred  men  in  ambush,  with  as  many  archers,  who  were 
commanded  to  attack  the  enemy  in  the  flank  during  the  en- 
gagement. He  ranged  his  army  in  three  divisions ;  the  van 
under  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  the  rear  under  the  Earls  of  Salis- 
bury and  Suffolk,  and  the  main  body  under  himself. 

The  French  were  ranged  on  the  lower  ridge,  in  three 
divisions,  the  rear  one  under  the  command  of  John. 

About  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning  (September  19,  1356), 
the  battle  began.  The  French  cavalry  rushed  to  the  assault, 
up  through  the  narrow  defile,  in  which  they  were  so  terribly 
harassed  by  the  English  archers  concealed  by  the  hedges, 
that  they  wavered,  and  those  that  emerged  at  the  head  of  the 
pass  were  furiously  attacked  by  the  ' '  Black  Prince ' '  in 
person.  A  dreadful  overthrow  ensued.  The  lane  became 
wholly  blocked  with  the  dead  and  wounded.  The  six 
hundred  men  in  ambush  fell  upon  the  flanks  of  the  French, 
and  a  complete  rout  took  place. 

The  glory  of  this  victory  was  enhanced  by  the  fact  that, 
among  the  nobles  taken  prisoners,  was  the  renowned  Bertrand 
Du  Guesclin,  and  that  the  King  himself  was  captured  while 
endeavoring  to  stem  the  retreat  of  his  forces. 

The  reception  accorded  to  the  captive  King  by  the  young 
conqueror,  forms  the  subject  of  one  of  Froissart's  finest  pas- 
sages in  his  ' '  Chronicles. ' '  We  give  a  few  lines  concerning 
the  supper  that  the  Prince  gave  in  his  lodgings  to  the  French 
King,  and  to  most  of  the  great  lords  that  were  prisoners.  "  He 
caused  the  King  and  his  son  to  sit  at  one  table,  and  the  other 
lords,  knights  and  squires  at  the  others;  and  he  always 
served  the  King  very  humbly,  and  would  not  sit  at  his  table, 

although  he  requested  him He  said  to  the  King,  '  Sir, 

for  God's  sake,  make  no  bad  cheer  ....  for,  sir,  the  King, 
my  father,  will  certainly  bestow  on  you  as  much  honor  and 
friendship  as  he  can,  and  will  agree  with  you  so  reasonably, 
that  you  shall  ever  after  be  friends ;  and,  sir,  I  think  you 
ought  to  rejoice,  though  the  battle  be  not  as  you  will,  for  you 
have  this  day  gained  the  high  honor  of  prowess,  and  have 


60  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

surpassed  all  others  on  your  side  in  valor.  And  I  say  not  this, 
sir,  in  raillery,  for  all  our  party,  who  saw  every  man's  deeds, 
agree  in  this,  and  give  you  the  palm  and  garland. ' ' 

Thus  was  achieved  by  the  "Black  Prince"  one  of  the 
three  great  battles  that  occurred  on  this  historic  ground,  for 
here  Clovis  defeated  the  Goths,  and  here  Charles  Martel  beat 
back  the  Saracens  ! 

A  few  words  more  before  we  dismiss  the  u  Black  Prince." 
He  was  in  the  popular  estimation  the  hero  of  this  heroic  age. 
His  valor  was  undoubted ;  and  his  conduct  distinguished  by 
courtesy  and  modesty.  These  qualities  were  peculiarly  ex- 
emplified in  his  treatment  of  the  captive  King.  The  u  Black 
Prince  "  died  in  his  forty-sixth  year  (June  8,  1376).  His  son 
Richard,  born  at  Bordeaux  was,  under  the  title  of  Richard  II. 
the  immediate  successor  of  Edward  III.  as  King  of  England. 

Of  the  "  Black  Prince  "  one  can  justly  say  that  his  virtues 
were  his  own,  and  his  vices  those  of  his  age.  Even  the 
French  king,  Louis,  the  son  of  King  John,  celebrated  funeral 
services  in  his  honor. 

For  two  weeks  his  body  lay  in  state  at  Westminster; 
thence  it  was  taken,  for  interment,  to  Canterbury.  In  the 
great  cortege  were  two  chargers,  fully  caparisoned,  and 
mounted  by  two  riders  in  complete  armor, — one  bearing  the 
Prince's  escutcheon  of  England  and  France,  the  other  carry- 
ing the  Crown  with  ostrich  feathers. 

And  so,  bid  we  farewell  to  this  First  Great  English  Cap- 
tain ;  never  forgetting  how  truly  his  two  mottoes  harmonize, 
— Ich  Dien  and  Hoch  Muth. 

While  Edward  III.  was  warring  in  France,  the  Scots  in- 
vaded the  northern  frontier  of  England.  Lord  Percy,  at  the 
head  of  the  English  troops,  met  and  defeated  them  near 
Durham,  with  a  loss  of  fifteen  thousand  killed.  King  David 
Bruce  and  many  of  his  nobles  were  taken  prisoners. 

Two  kings,  prisoners  at  the  same  court,  and  at  the  same 
time,  were  a  spectacle  certainly  very  flattering  to  the 
pride  of  the  English  people,  and  the  cause  of  great  elation  to 
their  king. 


EDWARD   III.    AND    "THE   BLACK   PRINCE."  6l- 

The  latter  part  of  the  King's  reign  became  clouded  with 
adverse  fortunes.  The  various  defeats  sustained  by  his  gen- 
erals in  France  and  on  the  sea,  formed  a  sad  close  to  the  early 
promise  and  splendor  of  his  rule.  Edward  III.  died  in  a  year 
after  the  death  of  his  favorite  son  (June  21,  1377). 

During  his  reign,  the  "  Black  Plague,"  that  had  spread 
over  Europe  reached  England.  This  pestilence,  more  dreadful 
than  any  mentioned  in  the  annals  of  history,  originated  in 
Asia,  and  settled,  at  last,  upon  Western  Europe  with  a  frightful 
malignity.  During  the  year  1349,  there  were  buried,  in  one 
churchyard  —  Charter  House — in  London,  fifty  thousand 
persons. 

The  reign  of  Edward  III.  was  distinguished  by  the  com- 
plete ascendancy  of  the  system  of  chivalry,  with  its  jousts  and 
tournaments.  The  Order  of  the  "Knights  of  the  Garter" 
was  instituted  by  him.  The  occasion  of  its  institution  is  not 
established  with  certainty.  The  legend,  "  Honi  soit  qui  mal 
y  pense," — "Evil  be  to  him  that  evil  thinks" — is  said  to 
afford  no  basis  for  the  vulgar  belief  that  it  was  a  result  of  the 
Countess  of  Salisbury's  happening  to  drop  her  garter  at  a 
ball,  and  the  king's  picking  it  up.  The  Order  consists  of 
twenty-four  persons  besides  the  King. 


SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH. 


SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH  was  the 
first  Englishman  that  attempted  to 
plant  a  colony  in  America,  and 
though  the  attempt  failed,  it  pointed 
the  way  to  the  success  of  later 
adventurers.  Raleigh's  whole  career 
was  a  series  of  similar  romantic 
enterprises,  glorious  but  unfortunate. 
His  character  still  shines  with  un- 
dimmed  brightness. 

He    was    born    in    Devonshire, 

England,  in  1552,  and  received  some  training  at  Oriel 
College,  Oxford.  In  his  seventeenth  year  he  began  his 
military  service  in  aid  of  the  Huguenots,  and  appears  to  have 
spent  seven  years  on  the  Continent.  He  was  afterwards 
engaged  in  Ireland  against  the  rebellious  natives.  On  his 
return  to  England,  he  became  attached  to  the  suite  of 
courtiers  that  surrounded  Queen  Elizabeth.  The  celebrated 
act  of  gallantry  which  secured  the  Queen's  favor  happened 
in  this  wise.  Her  Majesty,  surrounded  by  her  maids  of 
honor  and  gentlemen  in  waiting,  was  passing  through  the 
park  on  her  way  to  the  barge  lying  in  the  Thames. 
Happening  to  arrive  at  a  spot  which  had  been  rendered 
muddy  by  the  previous  night's  rain,  she  stopped,  perplexed 
whether  to  cross  it,  when  a  courtier,  handsome  of  person 
and  elegantly  attired,  instantly  stepping  to  the  front,  quickly 
threw  off  his  splendidly  embroidered  plush  cloak  and  spread 
it  over  the  place,  at  the  same  time  making  a  most  profound 
bow.  Such  graceful  courtesy  was  soon  lavishly  rewarded. 

It  is  also  said  of  Raleigh  that,  while  at  court  on  a  certain 
occasion,  being  unaware  of  the  presence  of  the  Queen,  he 
62 


SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH.  63 

scratched  on  the  glass  with  his  diamond  ring,  "  I  wish  to 
climb,  but  fear  to  fall."  A  few  days  afterward  on  observing 
the  window,  he  found  beneath  his  lines  these  words  :  "If 
thou  fear  to  fall,  climb  not  at  all. ' ' 

Ere  long  the  Queen  granted  him  two  estates,  and  the 
revenue  from  certain  licenses  that  gave  him  an  annual 
income  of  about  $25,000.  In  1584,  she  conferred  on  him 
the  honor  of  knighthood  ;  in  1585,  a  lord  wardenship, 
followed  by  the  Lieutenancy  of  Cornwall  ;  next  he  was 
made  Vice  Admiral  ;  and  finally,  Captain  of  the  Queen's 
Guard. 

In  1584,  Raleigh,  at  his  own  expense,  sent  two  vessels 
which  explored  the  coast  of  the  New  World  north  of 
Florida,  and  debarked  at  Wocoken  Island,  off  the  shores  of 
North  Carolina.  Raleigh  received  a  patent  of  discovery,  and 
the  Queen  graciously  conferred  on  this  enchanting  country 
the  name  of  Virginia. 

The  next  year  Raleigh  sent  a  fleet  with  107  emigrants  to 
colonize  his  lands,  under  the  command  of  Ralph  Lane  as 
governor.  The  colonists  were  soon  involved  in  troubles 
with  the  Indians,  and  returned  home  in  the  ships  of  Sir 
Francis  Drake,  who  happened  to  stop  off  this  coast,  on  his 
way  from  the  West  Indies  to  England.  Thus  ended  the  first 
actual  settlement  of  the  English  in  America.  But  the 
attempt  was  not  wholly  without  results.  The  exiles  of  a 
year  had  grown  familiar  with  the  favorite  amusement  of  the 
lethargic  Indians,  and  they  introduced  into  England  the 
general  use  of  tobacco.  Raleigh  enjoyed  the  soothing  solace 
of  the  new  luxury  from  a  silver  pipe/^e  Queen  sitting  by 
him  while  he  smoked.  He  also  planted  the  first  potatoes  in 
Irish  soil,  where  he  had  received,  in  1587,  a  grant  of  42,000 
acres  of  land.-  While  in  Ireland  he  formed  the  acquaintance 
of  Spenser,  with  the  endless  fame  of  whose  great  poem,  the 
Fairy  Queen,  his  name  is  imperishably  linked  by  the 
glorious  eulogy  the  poet  has  inscribed  in  the  dedication  of 
the,  work. 

Raleigh  sent  another  colony  to  Virginia  under  John 
White  as  governor,  together  with  a  charter  of  incorporation 
as  a  municipality,  or  "City  of  Raleigh."  They  landed  on 


64  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

Roanoke  Island  in  June,  1587,  and  started  to  build  the  city 
there.  The  governor's  grandchild,  born  here,  the  first  child 
of  English  parents  born  in  America,  was  named  Virginia 
Dare.  The  supply  ships  sent  next  year  by  Raleigh  failed  to 
reach  Roanoke,  and  as  he  had  already  sunk  $200,000,  he 
converted  his  proprietary  rights  into  the  form  of  a  company, 
who  sent  an  addition  to  the  number  of  the  colonists  in  the 
year  1590.  When  they  arrived  the  colony  on  Roanoke  had 
disappeared.  Their  fate  remains  unknown  ;  but  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  part  of  them  became  attached  to  the 
Indian  tribe.  Raleigh  now  relinquished  any  further  attempt 
at  colonization  in  America. 

The  favor  of  princes  is  proverbially  unstable.  Raleigh, 
after  enjoying  the  sunshine  of  the  English  court  for  ten  years, 
was  now  to  encounter  its  clouds  and  storms.  In  July,  1 592, 
he  was  sent  prisoner  to  the  Tower,  consequent  upon  the 
Queen's  discovery  of  his  intrigue  with  one  of  her  maids-of- 
honor,  Miss  Throckmorton.  .When  released  from  prison  he 
married  her.  It  was  five  years  before  he  was  again  admitted 
to  the  Queen's  presence. 

In  1595  Raleigh  made  his  first  attempt  to  reach  the 
fabulous  El  Dorado  by  sailing  up  the  Orinoco.  In  the  next 
year  he  was  with  Lords  Howard  and  Essex  in  their  attack  on 
the  Spanish  fleet  in  the  harbor  of  Cadiz.  In  fact,  it  was 
upon  his  urgent  suggestion  that  the  conflict  was  made  by  sea 
rather  than  by  land.  In  1600  he  was  appointed  governor 
of  the  Isle  of  Jersey,  and  in  1602  he  sold  his  Irish  estates. 

The  death  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  the  accession  of 
James  I.,  presaged  misfortune  to  Raleigh.  The  Earl  of 
Essex,  whom  the  Queen  had  executed,  was  greatly  admired 
by  James,  who  probably  knew  that  Raleigh  was  indifferent 
to  the  fate  of  the  Queen's  favorite.  At  any  rate,  the  clique 
surrounding  King  James  confirmed  his  prejudice  against 
Sir  Walter.  It  is  said  that  upon  Raleigh's  meeting  the 
King,  the  latter  perpetrated  this  feeble  pun  ;  "  On  my  soul, 
man,  I  have  heard  but  rawly  of  thee."  Ere  long  Raleigh 
was  deprived  of  all  the  posts  of  honor  and  vantage  he  had 
held. 

On  the  i /th  of  July,  1603,  Raleigh  was  arrested  on  the 


SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH.  65 

charge  of  complicity  in  the  plot  of  L,ord  Cobham  against 
King  James.  Cobham  alleged  that  Raleigh  was  the  instiga- 
tor of  the  plot.  Raleigh,  in  his  despair  attempted  suicide, 
and  Cobham  retracted  his  assertion.  At  the  trial  of  Raleigh, 
the  attorney-general,  Sir  Edward  Coke,  disgraced  English 
jurisprudence  by  his  brutal  prosecution,  during  which  he 
called  the  defendant  "a  monster,''  "  viper/'  u rankest  traitor 
in  all  England,"  "damnable  atheist,"  "  spider  of  hell,"  etc. 

Raleigh's  defense  was  splendid,  and  for  the  first  time  in 
his  life  he  made  his  way  into  the  hearts  of  all  Englishmen 
by  his  dauntless  bearing  and  the  burning  eloquence  of  his 
words.  But  he  was  condemned  to  death,  and  was  reprieved 
only  on  the  scaffold,  his  sentence  being  commuted  to  perpet- 
j^L  imprisonment. 

During  the  twelve  years  ensuing,  Raleigh  wrote  his 
famous  History  of  the  World,  of  which  Edmund  Gosse  gives 
the  following  criticism  :  "It  is  leisurely  to  the  last  excess. 
The  first  chapter,  of  seven  long  sections,  takes  us  but  to  the 
close  of  creation.  It  is  not  until  he  reaches  the  Patriarchs 
that  it  begins  to  occur  to  the  historian  that  at  his  present 
rate  of  progress  it  will  need  forty  folio  volumes,  and  not 

four,  to  complete  his  labors With  all  this,  the 

"History  of  the  World"  is  a  charming  and  delightful  miscel- 
lany, if  we  do  not  accept  it  too  seriously There 

is  not  a  chapter,  however  arid,  without  its  fine  things  some- 
where. It  is  impossible  to  tell  where  Raleigh's  pen  will  take 
fire.  He  is  most  exquisite  and  fanciful  where  his  subject  is 
most  unhopeful,  and,  on  the  other  hand  he  is  likely  to 
disappoint  us  where  we  take  for  granted  he  will  be  fine." 

As  King  James  affected  to  be  a  man  of  learning,  and  a 
patron  of  men  of  letters,  one  would  think  his  prejudice 
would  have  been  mitigated  ;  but  the  contrary  was  the  fact, 
his  jealousy  of  Raleigh  was  increased  by  this  literary  activity. 
Not  only  was  this  history  suppressed  by  the  king,  but  many 
other  of  Raleigh's  writings.  For  the  tragic  conclusion 
of  the  adventurous  knight's  career,  see  the  following  chapter 
on  El  Dorado. 


66  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

EL  DORADO  AND  THE  DEATH  OF  RALEIGH. 

The  Spanish  conquerors  of  America  were  dazzled  with 
the  wealth  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  and  later  explorers  were 
incited  with  the  hope  of  discovering  still  richer  regions. 
The  sailor,  Martinez,  who  had  been  set  adrift  on  the  sea, 
asserted  that  he  was  flung  on  the  coast  of  Guiana,  and 
conducted  inland  to  a  city  called  Manoa,  which  was  governed 
by  a  king  in  alliance  with  the  Incas.  Here  was  such  abund- 
ance of  the  precious  metals  that  the  roofs  and  walls  were 
covered  with  gold.  The  whole  country  was  therefore  called 
"El  Dorado,"  the  Golden.  Orellana,  who  discovered  the 
mighty  stream  of  the  Amazon  in  1540,  brought  reports  of  a 
neighboring  land  of  fabulous  wealth.  Other  Spaniards  pro- 
fessed to  have  seen  the  golden  splendor  of  Manoa,  and  their 
accounts  fired  the  imagination  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  fifty 
years  later.  During  his  exile  from  the  court  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  Raleigh,  thirsting  for  new  adventures  worthy  of 
his  ambition,  formed  the  project  of  an  expedition  for  the 
recovery  of  the  lost  city  of  Manoa  and  its  El  Dorado  in  the 
wilds  of  Guiana.  In  command  of  five  ships  he  explored,  in 
1595,  the  coasts  of  Trinidad,  sailed  up  the  Orinoco,  and  had 
his  enthusiasm  aroused  by  the  tropical  splendors  of  the 
scenery,  and  still  more  by  the  auriferous  quartz  he  found,  and 
the  marvelous  stories  told  by  the  Indians  of  immense 
treasures  of  gold  further  in  the  interior.  To  rouse  his  coun- 
trymen to  the  great  opportunity,  he  returned  to  England, 
and  published,  in  1596,  The  Discovery  of  the  large,  rich 
and  beautiful  Empire  of  Guiana,  a  splendid  piece  of  vigor- 
ous English  prose.  But  it  failed  to  interest  the  English 
public. 

With  the  death  of  King  James'  infamous  favorite,  Carr, 
Earl  of  Somerset,  and  the  accession  of  Villiers  to  power  in 
1616,  Raleigh  was  liberated  from  the  Tower  upon  condition 
of  undertaking  another  expedition  to  Guiana  in  search  of  the 
gold  mine,  which  he  asserted  to  exist  near  the  Orinoco  ;  but 
he  was  required  also  to  avoid  attacking  the  Spaniards.  As 
Spain  now  claimed  this  country,  it  is  plain  this  last  condition 
was  a  snare  of  the  king's  to  entrap  Raleigh.  The  expedition 


SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH.  67 

sailed  despite  the  protest  of  the  Spanish  ambassador  Gondo- 
mar,  but  King  James  guarded  against  ultimate  trouble  with 
Spain  through  the  cowardly  safeguard  of  allowing  Raleigh  to 
go  with  his  old  sentence  still  hanging  over  his  head,  as  well 
as  communicating  his  route  to  Gondomar.  And  so  in  April, 
1617,  the  hero  sailed  to  his  doom. 

The  small  fleet,  provided  mostly  at  the  expense  of  Raleigh 
and  his  friends,  arrived  at  the  Orinoco.  Here  the  com- 
mander's illness — he  had  suffered  an  apoplectic  attack  in 
the  Tower — prevented  his  further  progress.  He  sent  his 
friend  Keymis  forward  in  search  of  the  mine.  Keymis'  party 
came  in  collision  with  the  Spaniards,  burnt  their  town,  and 
failed  to  find  any  mine.  Young  Walter  Raleigh  was  killed  in 
the  fight,  shouting,  "Come  on,  my  men  !  This  is  the  only 
mine  you  will  ever  find."  Raleigh's  reproaches  of  Keymis 
were  so  bitter  that  the  latter  committed  suicide.  Raleigh, 
stricken  as  he  was,  wished  now  to  search  for  the  mine,  but 
his  men  refused  to  go  with  him.  Utterly  broken  down,  he 
reached  England  with  his  ship  Destiny,  in  June,  1618.  He 
desired  to  escape  to  France  ;  but  he  was  surrounded  with 
satellites  of  the  king,  and  finally  betrayed  by  his  kinsman, 
Sir  Lewis  Stukely. 

King  James  fearing  to  bring  Raleigh  before  the  council  of 
state,  instituted  a  commission,  among  whom  were  Coke  and 
Bacon.  Villiers,  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  had  changed  from 
an  opponent  to  an  adherent  of  Spain,  and  King  Philip  having 
demanded  Raleigh's  execution,  King  James  resorted  to  this 
device  of  a  commission  so  as  to  avoid  a  legal  trial.  Bacon, 
who  was  an  enemy  of  Raleigh,  delivered  the  judgment  of  the 
commission,  that  he  was  guilty  of  abusing  the  confidence  of 
King  James,  and  of  injuring  the  subjects  of  Spain,  and  that 
he  must  prepare  to  die,  being  already  civilly  dead.  Both 
judges  convinced  themselves  that  he  never  had  any  intention 
to  find  the  mine  at  all.  He  was  condemned  to  die  the  next 
morning  (October  29,  1618)  on  the  old  sentence. 

After  parting  with  his  wife  on  the  evening  of  the  2, 8th, 
Raleigh  wrote  these  words  : 

"  Even  such  is  time,  that  takes  in  trust 
Our  youth,  our  joys,  our  all  we  have, 


68  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

And  pays  us  but  with  earth  and  dust'; 
Who  in  the  dark  and  silent  grave, 
When  we  have  wandered  all  our  ways, 
Shuts  up  the  story  of  our  days  ; 
But  from  this  earth,  this  grave,  this  dust, 
My  God  shall  raise  me  up,  I  trust." 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh  went  to  death  in  high  spirits.  Gosse 
says,  "He  was  justly  elated.  He  took  his  public  execution 
with  delight,  as  if  it  were  a  martyrdom,  and  had  the  greatness 
of  soul  to  perceive  that  nothing  could  possibly  commend  his 
career  and  character  to  posterity  so  much  as  to  leave  this 
mortal  stage  with  a  telling  soliloquy.  His  powers  were  drawn 
together  to  their  height ;  his  intellect  ...  never  flashed 
more  brilliantly  ...  As  he  stood  on  the  scaffold  in  the  cold 
morning  air,  he  foiled  James  and  Philip  at  one  thrust,  and 
conquered  the  esteem  of  all  posterity." 

Sir  Walter  requested  to  see  the  axe,  and  having  felt  its 
edge,  he,  smiling,  turned  to  the  Sheriff  and  said,  "  'Tis  a 
sharp  medicine,  but  one  that  will  cure  me  of  all  my  diseases." 
In  answer  as  to  how  he  would  lay  his  head  on  the  block,  he  said, 
"So  the  heart  be  right,  it  matters  not  which  way  the  head 
lies."  His  last  words  were  to  the  headsman  :  "  What  dost 
thou  fear?  Strike,  man,  strike  !" 

Thus  perished  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  the  sixty-seventh 
year  of  his  age.  Bancroft's  eulogium  is  but  a  just  tribute  to 
this  extraordinary  man.  "  What  shall  be  said  of  King  James, 
who  would  open  to  an  aged  paralytic  no  other  hope  of  liberty 
but  through  success  in  the  discovery  of  mines  in  Guiana  ? 
What  shall  be  said  of  a  monarch  who  could,  at  that  time, 
under  a  sentence  which  was  originally  unjust,  and  which  had 
slumbered  for  fifteen  years,  order  the  execution  of  the  decrepit 
man,  whose  genius  and  valor  shone  brilliantly  through  the 

ravages  of  physical  decay The  family  of  the  chief 

author  of  early  colonization  in  the  United  States  was  reduced 
to  beggary  by  the  government  of  England,  and  he  himself 
was  beheaded.  After  a  lapse  of  nearly  two  centuries,  the  State 
of  North  Carolina,  by  a  solemn  act  of  legislation,  revived  in 
its  capital  'The  City  of  Raleigh,'  and  thus  expressed  its  con- 
fidence in  the  integrity,  and  a  grateful  respect  for  the  memory, 


SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH.  69 

of  the  extraordinary  man,  who  united  in  himself  as  many 
kinds  of  glory  as  were  ever  combined  in  an  individual." 

AMBITION  AND  DEATH. 

(The  eloquent  concluding  paragraphs  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  "History  of  the  World.") 

If  we  seek  a  reason  of  the  succession  and  continuance  of 
boundless  ambition  in  mortal  men,  we  may  add  that  the 
kings  and  princes  of  this  world  have  always  laid  before  them 
the  actions,  but  not  the  ends,  of  those  great  ones  which 
preceded  them.  They  are  always  transported  with  the  glory 
of  the  one,  but  they  never  mind  the  misery  of  the  other,  till 
they  find  the  experience  in  themselves.  They  neglect  the 
advice  of  God  while  they  enjoy  life,  or  hope  of  it,  but  they 
follow  the  counsel  of  Death  upon  his  first  approach. 

It  is,  therefore,  Death  alone  that  can  suddenly  make  man 
to  know  himself.  He  tells  the  proud  and  the  insolent  that 
they  are  but  objects,  and  humbles  them  at  the  instant,  makes 
them  cry,  complain,  and  repent,  yea,  even  to  hate  their  fore- 
passed  happiness.  He  takes  account  of  the  rich,  and  proves 
him  a  beggar — a  naked  beggar — which  hath  interest  in  noth- 
ing but  in  the  gravel  that  fills  his  mouth.  He  holds  a  glass 
before  the  eyes  of  the  most  beautiful,  and  makes  them  see 
their  deformity  and  rottenness,  and  they  acknowledge  it. 

O  eloquent,  just,  and  mighty  Death  !  whom  none  could 
advise,  thou  hast  persuaded  ;  what  none  hath  dared,  thou  hast 
done  ;  and  whom  all  the  world  hath  flattered,  thou  only  hast 
cast  out  of  the  world  and  despised.  Thou  hast  drawn 
together  all  the  far-stretched  greatness,  all  the  pride,  cruelty, 
and  ambition  of  man,  and  covered  it  all  over  with  these  true 
words,  Hicjacet! 


FERDINAND  DE  SOTO. 


FERDINAND  (or  Hernando)  DE  SOTO, 
the  discoverer  of  the  Mississippi,  was 
born  in  1500  in  the  town  of  Xeres 
in  Central  Spain,  of  a  noble  but  im- 
poverished family.  In  his  youth  he 
was  taken  under  the  protection  of  a 
wealthy  nobleman,  Don  Pedro  de 
Avila,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  spend 
some  years  at  a  university,  where  he 

won  distinction,  not  only  in  literary  studies,  but  in  athletic 
accomplishments.  Meanwhile  Don  Pedro  went  to  America 
to  become  governor  of  Darien,  and  young  De  Soto  fell 
in  love  with  his  patron's  daughter,  Isabella.  De  Avila's 
return  in  1519  brought  a  sad  experience  to  the  ardent  lovers. 
When  De  Soto  proposed  manfully  for  his  daughter's  hand,  Don 
Pedro  scornfully  rejected  him  as  a  suitor.  But  when  Isabella 
announced  her  determination  to  enter  a  convent,  the  proud 
and  crafty  father  changed  his  plan  of  action,  and  feigned  a 
reconciliation  with  De  Soto.  With  the  greatest  appearance  of 
cordiality,  he  offered  the  young  man  a  captain's  commission, 
with  the  necessary  outfit,  to  accompany  him  back  to  Darien. 
He  assured  De  Soto  every  facility  would  be  afforded  to  him  for 
the  acquisition  of  wealth  and  distinction.  De  Soto  frankly 
accepted  the  offer  ;  but  though  the  Don,  on  various  pretexts, 
had  prevented  any  private  interviews  of  the  lovers,  yet  they 
were  not  completely  baulked.  They  parted,  and  her  words  to 
him  were :  "Ferdinand,  remember  that  one  treacherous  friend 
is  more  dangerous  than  a  thousand  avowed  enemies. ' ' 

He  was  not  long  at  Darien,  before  Don  Pedro  sent  Captain 
Perez,  a  noted  duellist,  with  an  order  to  him  to  set  out  for  a 
70 


FERDINAND   DE  SOTO.  7! 

certain  Indian  village  and  destroy  it,  and  to  spare  the  life  of 
neither  man,  woman  or  child.  De  Soto,  shocked,  replied, 
"Tell  Don  Pedro,  the  governor,  that  my  life  and  services  are 
always  at  his  disposal,  when  the  duty  to  be  performed  is  such 
as  may  become  a  Christian  and  a  gentleman.  But  in  the  pre- 
sent case,  I  think  the  governor  would  have  shown  more  dis- 
cretion by  entrusting  you,  Captain  Perez,  with  this  commission, 
instead  of  sending  you  with  the  order  to  myself."  Don  Pedro 
anticipated  the  result,  and  instigated  the  duel  which  followed, 
in  which,  however,  contrary  to  the  expectations  of  the  Me- 
phistophilean  governor,  De  Soto  was  the  victor. 

De  Soto,  with  three  hundred  men,  aided  Pizarro  in  his  con- 
quest of  Peru ;  and  he  was  also  one  of  the  twelve  Spaniards 
who  maintained  the  honor  of  humanity  by  their  protest  against 
the  infamous  murder  of  the  Inca. 

De  Soto,  who  landed  in  America  with  nothing  of  his  own 
"save  his  sword  and  target,"  returned  to  Spain  in  affluent  cir- 
cumstances, arising  from  his  share  of  the  enormous  ransom 
the  Inca  had  vainly  brought  together.  The  fame  of  his  brave 
deeds  had  preceded  him,  and  he  was  even  popularly  considered 
to  be  the  actual  conqueror  of  Peru.  Isabella  de  Avila  became 
his  wife,  and  everywhere  he  was  received  with  the  most  dis- 
tinguished attention.  The  rest  of  his  adventurous  career  is 
comprised  in  the  narrative  of  his  expedition  to  Florida,  in 
which  he  finally  discovered  the  Mississippi  River.  He  was 
buried  in  its  waters  in  June,  1546. 

THE  DISCOVERY  OF  THE  MISSISSIPPI. 

Soon  after  the  discovery  of  Florida  in  1512  by  Juan  Ponce 
de  Leon,  it  became  an  article  of  popular  belief  in  Spain  that 
the  unknown  country  to  the  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
which  was  all  vaguely  comprised  under  the  name  Florida, 
contained  cities  as  wealthy  and  temples  as  splendid  as  those 
of  Peru.  The  strange  story  of  Cabega  de  Vaca,  who  after 
being  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Texas  had  crossed  to  the  Gulf 
of  California,  greatly  conduced  to  the  prevalence  of  this  no- 
tion. Ferdinand  de  Soto,  already  enriched  with  the  spoils  of 
the  New  World,  and  high  in  favor  both  with  the  court  and 
the  people,  obtained  in  1537,  from  Charles  V,  a  patent  author- 


72  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

izing  him  to  fit  out,  at  his  own  expense,  an  expedition  to 
conquer  Florida,  over  which  he  was  to  have  absolute  power 
as  ruler ;  and,  as  a  favor  precedent,  the  Emperor  appointed 
him  governor  of  Cuba.  When  the  news  spread,  adventurers 
from  all  quarters  flocked  to  his  standard  as  volunteers ;  the 
Spanish  sea-port  was  crowded  with  persons  wishing  to  share 
in  the  enterprise.  Many  were  persons  of  noble  birth  and 
good  estates.  The  prospect  was  considered  brilliant,  since 
so  great  a  soldier  as  De  Soto  believed  in  the  wealth  and 
splendor  of  the  interior  of  Florida. 

De  Soto  set  sail,  in  1538,  with  six  hundred  picked  men, 
the  flower  of  Spain.  In  Cuba  also,  the  infatuation  to  accom- 
pany the  governor  to  the  conquest  of  "the  richest  country 
which  had  yet  been  discovered"  prevailed.  With  augmented 
forces  De  Soto  landed  at  Tampa  bay,  3Oth  of  May,  1539.  The 
fleet  of  nine  vessels  was  sent  back  to  Cuba  where  his  wife, 
Isabella,  was  to  act  as  Regent  during  his  absence  ; — a  sepa- 
ration that  was  indeed  final,  as  far  as  concerned  their  ever 
meeting  again  in  this  world. 

Notwithstanding  De  Soto's  strict  orders,  that  forbade  the 
practice  of  any  injustice  upon  the  Indians,  it  was  impossible 
to  prevent  all  wrong  by  the  soldiery.  De  Soto  was  undoubt- 
edly upright  in  conduct  and  hated  oppression.  But  the  na* 
tives  could  not  forget  the  cruelties  inflicted  upon  them  by 
Spaniards :  especially  was  this  the  case  with  the  chief,  Ucita, 
who  had  been  most  cruelly  used  by  Narvaez,  when  he  invaded 
Florida  in  1528.  De  Soto's  first  attempts  at  friendly  inter- 
course were  repelled  by  the  chief.  As  De  Soto  realized  fully 
the  impolicy  of  leaving  a  hostile  tribe  in  his  rear,  when  he 
should  begin  his  march  into  the  interior,  he  persevered  in 
friendly  offers  to  Ucita,  sending  messages  to  him  containing 
assurances  of  his  utter  detestation  of  the  actions  of  Narvaez, 
and  of  the  outrages  he  had  inflicted.  Finally,  the  reply  of 
Ucita  came  back  in  the  following  noble  words  :  "The  memory 
of  my  injuries  prevents  me  from  returning  a  kind  reply  to  your 
messages,  and  your  courtesy  is  such  that  it  will  not  allow  me  to 
return  a  harsh  answer."  This  response,  so  remarkable,  is  cer- 
tainly evidence  that  there  are,  at  times,  in  this  world  individ- 
uals who  are  far  in  advance  of  their  age  and  environment. 


FERDINAND  DB  SOTO.  .  73 

Fortunately  for  De  Soto,  Juan  Ortiz,  who  had  managed 
to  escape  death  when  Narvaez's  band  was  expelled,  found  his 
way  to  the  Spanish  camp.  All  the  information  he  could 
impart  was  that,  a  hundred  miles  away,  there  was  a  chief 
whose  realms  were  more  populous  and  wealthy  than  those  of 
the  surrounding  chieftains. 

It  was  not,  however,  till  March,  1540,  that  the  expedition 
started  on  the  great  invasion  of  the  interior,  and  after  two 
months  of  desultory  northward  inarching  through  pine 
barrens,  morasses  and  swamps,  during  which  they  were  glad 
even  to  live  on  dog-flesh,  they  arrived  in  the  kingdom  of 
Cutifachiqui,  ruled  over  by  a  female  sovereign.  Here  they 
obtained  pearls  from  the  natives,  and  acquired  a  very  large 
quantity  indeed,  by  rifling  the  Indian  tombs.  But  as  there 
was  no  gold  to  be  found,  they  soon  marched  onward,  taking 
now  a  westerly  direction,  through  a  mountainous  country,  and 
arrived  at  the  kingdom  of  Guaxule,  whose  king,  when  he  saw 
the  Christians,  killing  and  eating  the  village  dogs,  presented 
them  with  three  hundred  of  these  animals. 

In  a  few  days  more,  De  Soto  reached  the  country  of 
Chiaha.  He  was  received  by  the  sovereign  where  now  stands 
the  city  of  Rome,  Georgia,  with  these  words  :  ' '  Powerful  and 
Excellent  Master,  fortunate  am  I  that  you  will  make  use  of 
my  services.  Nothing  could  happen  that  would  give  me  so 
great  contentment,  or  which  I  should  value  more.  From 
Guaxule  you  sent  to  have  maize  for  you  in  readiness  to  last 
two  months  ;  you  have  in  this  town  twenty  barbacoas  full  of 
the  choicest  and  best  to  be  found  in  all  this  country.  If  the 
reception  I  give  is  not  worthy  so  great  a  prince,  consider  my 
youth,  which  will  relieve  me  of  blame,  and  receive  my  good 
will,  which,  with  true  loyalty  and  pure,  shall  ever  be  shown 
in  all  things  that  concern  your  welfare." 

After  a  rest  of  thirty  days  with  the  friendly  Chiahas, 
De  Soto,  in  July,  1540,  entered  the  country  of  the  Alibamons. 
Taking  now  a  southwest  direction,  by  October  he  had 
reached  the  town  of  Mavilla,  situated  on  the  Alabama  river, 
near  its  junction  with  the  Tombigbee,  and  about  one  hun- 
dred miles  north  of  the  bay  of  Pensacola. 

The   Spaniards  took  possession   of  the  town,  which  so 


74  .    HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

incensed  the  Indians  that  a  bloody  battle  ensued  in  the  public 
square.  At  last  the  natives  took  to  their  frame  houses,  to  fight 
at  better  advantage.  To  drive  them  from  this  defense,  the 
soldiers  fired  the  houses ;  soon  the  whole  town  was  a  mass  of 
flames,  and  became  the  funeral  pyre  of  thousands. 

Retreating  northward,  in  about  a  month's  time,  Decem- 
ber, 1540,  De  Soto  arrived  at  the  banks  of  the  Yazoo  river 
and  went  into  winter  quarters.  However,  during  the  follow- 
ing March,  the  Chickasaws,  exasperated  at  the  occupancy  of 
their  houses  by  strangers,  set  them  on  fire,  causing  the  loss  of 
eleven  Spanish  lives. 

A  march  due  west,  for  seven  days,  through  a  wilderness  of 
forests  and  marshes,  brought  the  weary  Spaniards,  at  last,  to 
the  banks  of  a  magnificent  river,  which  rolled  its  immense 
volume  of  water  through  the  splendid  vegetation  of  an  alluvial 
soil.  The  natives  guided  them,  probably,  to  the  usual  cross- 
ing place,  at  Chickasaw  Bluff,  where  the  width  is  nearly  two 
miles.  The  rapid  current  bore  upon  its  bosom  a  vast 
quantity  of  driftwood  logs  and  whole  trees.  Thus  in  April, 
1541,  De  Soto,  little  aware  of  the  magnitude  of  his  discovery, 
was  standing  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi,  justly  called  by 
the  Indians,  ' '  Father  of  Waters. ' '  This  discovery  has  more 
surely  enrolled  his  name  in  the  annals  of  fame  than  if  he  had 
found  those  mines  of  silver  and  gold  which  he  sought  with 
such  indomitable  perseverance  in  the  fancied  Eldorado 
hidden  in  the  Floridian  wildernesses. 

A  month  was  spent  before  the  flat  boats  were  fully  con- 
structed, and  the  transport  of  the  men  and  horses  effected.  A 
remarkable  incident  now  occurred.  The  natives,  worshipers 
of  the  sun,  brought  their  blind  to  be  healed  by  "the  sons  of 
light"  u  Pray  only  to  God,  who  is  in  heaven,  for  whatso- 
ever ye  need,"  was  De  Soto's  answer. 

The  unsatisfied  quest  of  gold  urged  him  onward  and 
northwestward,  till  he  reached  the  highlands  of  the  White 
river.  Then  he  turned  south  till  he  was  obliged  to  halt  for 
the  winter,  at  the  sources  of  the  Washita.  In  March,  1542, 
he  descended  along  this  stream  to  the  Mississippi,  anxious 
now  to  reach  the  sea.  His  frequent  disappointments  had 
thrown  him  into  a  wasting  melancholy.  In  the  dense  woods, 


FERDINAND  DE  SOTO.  75 

cane-brakes  and  wide  bayous,  he  contracted  a  malignant 
fever.  Before  lie  was  relieved  by  death  in  May,  1542,  he 
called  his  faithful  followers  around  him  and  appointed  his 
lieutenant,  Moscoso,  as  his  successor. 

Thus  perished  Ferdinand  De  Soto,  the  associate  of  Pizarro, 
the  governor  of  Cuba,  the  prospective  Marquis  of  Florida, 
the  discoverer  of  the  Mississippi.  u  His  miserable  end,"  says 
Bancroft,  ' '  was  the  more  observable  from  the  greatness  of 
his  former  prosperity.  His  soldiers  pronounced  his  eulogy 
by  grieving  for  their  loss ;  the  priests  chanted  over  his  body 
the  first  requiems  that  were  ever  heard  on  the  waters  cf  the 
Mississippi.  To  conceal  his  death,  his  body  was  wrapped  in 
a  mantle,  and,  in  the  stillness  of  midnight,  was  silently  sunk 
in  the  middle  of  the  stream.  The  discoverer  of  the  Missis- 
sippi slept  beneath  its  waters.  He  had  crossed  a  large  part 
of  the  continent  in  search  of  gold,  and  found  nothing  so 
remarkable  as  his  burial  place." 

The  surviving  Spaniards,  under  the  command  of  Moscoso, 
now  marched  at  first  to  the  west,  induced  by  a  rumor  that  not 
far  off  was  Mexico,  where  an  army  of  their  countrymen  were 
enriching  themselves.  After  a  toilsome  march  of  five  hun- 
dred miles,  they  reached  the  buffalo  prairies,  the  hunting 
grounds  of  the  Comanches  ;  then  completely  exhausted,  and 
nearly  famished,  they  turned  back  to  the  Mississippi,  which 
they  reached  in  December,  1542.  By  the  following  July,  they 
had  constructed  seven  frail  crafts,  which  enabled  them  to 
descend  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  in  seventeen  days.  Then, 
following  the  coast  for  fifty  days,  they  arrived  at  the  Panuco 
River,  in  Mexico,  in  September,  1543.  The  survivors  num- 
bered about  three  hundred.  De  Soto's  faithful  wife  is  said  to 
have  expired  at  Havana,  on  the  third  day  after  learning  his 
fate. 

Three  independent  narratives  of  this  expedition,  written 
by  participants,  and  widely  different  in  style,  but  agreeing 
substantially  in  details  of  fact,  attest  the  truth  and  importance 
of  De  Soto's  discovery  beyond  dispute. 


ERMANN,  called  by  Latin  writers  Ar- 
ininius,  is  justly  venerated  by  all  Ger- 
manic people  as  the  Liberator  of  their 
Fatherland  from  the  bondage  of  imperial 
Rome.     He  deserves  also  to  be  enrolled 
among  the  earliest  heroes  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  race,  and  to  be  remembered  by 
all  who  claim   descent  from  them  or 
speak  the  English  language.     It  was  indeed  their  primeval 
fatherland  that  the  brave  German  rescued  when  he  slaughtered 
the  legions  of  Varus  in  the  marshes  of  the  Ems. 

When  Augustus  was  firmly  established  in  power  as  the 
first  Emperor  of  Rome,  he  directed  his  armies  to  the  subjuga- 
tion of  various  tribes  on  the  borders  of  the  empire.  The 
most  important  of  the  Roman  wars  of  this  period  was  that 
against  the  Germans.  It  consisted  of  a  continuous  series  of 
attacks  from  12  B.C.  TO  5  A.D.,  first  by  Drusus,  and  after  his 
death  in  9  B.C.,  by  Tiberius,  both  of  whom  were  step-sons  of 
Augustus.  Vast  armies  penetrated  into  the  interior  of  Ger- 
many ;  fleets  coasted  along  the  northern  shore  and  sailed  up 
the  great  rivers  to  cooperate  with  the  land  forces.  The  north- 
ern districts  between  the  rivers  Rhine  and  Elbe  were 
brought  into  seeming  and  sullen  subjection  to  the  Romans. 
To  aid  in  the  maintenance  of  that  domination,  the  children 
of  the  chiefs  of  the  tribes  were  taken  as  hostages  and  given 
an  education,  generally  at  Rome. 

Hermann  was  the  son  of  Sigimer,  the  chief  of  the  Cherusci, 
and  was  born  B.C.  16.     But  in  early  boyhood,  with  his  brother, 
76 


COPYRIGHT   1394  or  Wu.  FiULErX  Co. 


HERMANN. 


HERMANN,  THE  HERO  OP  GERMANY.  77 

he  was  taken  to  Rome,  named  Arminius,  educated  in  the 
best  Roman  method,  made  a  Roman  citizen  and  a  knight, 
and  admitted  into  the  Roman  army.  Through  this  train- 
ing he  quickly  perceived  the  hopelessness  of  pitting  undis- 
ciplined barbarians  in  open  field  fight  against  Roman  co- 
horts. While  Roman  honors  and  refinements  denationalized 
his  brother,  who  had  received  the  Roman  name  of  Flavius, 
Hermann  remained  incorruptible. 

At  this  time  Rome  had  as  many  as  fifty  fortified  positions 
along  the  Rhine,  many  of  them  the  sites  of  the  present  great 
German  cities ;  among  others  Bonn,  Mayence,  etc.  The  Ro- 
man fleets  often  sailed  into  the  mouths  of  the  Rhine,  Ems, 
Weser  and  Elbe.  These  fleets  sailed  from  the  harbors  of  con- 
quered Gaul. 

Quintilius  Varus,  who  had  previously  been  governor  of 
Syria,  was  commissioned  as  the  viceroy  of  Northwest  Ger- 
many. Accustomed  to  rule  over  submissive  vassals,  he  tyran- 
nized with  the  greatest  rapacity  and  licentiousness.  In  this 
he  was  imitated,  as  example  is  always  contagious,  by  his 
officers,  and  by  his  still  more  brutal  soldiery.  Varus  had 
three  Roman  legions,  amounting  to  about  fourteen  thousand 
men,  a  thousand  cavalry,  and  about  five  thousand  auxiliary 
troops.  He  held  his  court  in  Central  Westphalia,  to  which 
tribunal  the  Germans  were  compelled  to  submit  their  disputes ; 
and  there  venality  always  prevailed.  In  the  sequel,  the 
Roman  lawyers,  who  flocked  there  to  enrich  themselves,  paid 
a  fearful  forfeit. 

With  the  exception  of  his  father-in-law,  Segestes,  Her- 
mann, while  still  in  the  Roman  army,  originated  a  great  con- 
spiracy of  the  German  tribes,  the  result  of  which  was  the 
almost  complete  destruction  of  the  legions  of  Varus  in  the 
three-days'  bloody  battle  of  the  Teutoburgerwald,  in  Septem- 
ber, A.  D.  9.  When  the  dreadful  tidings  were  brought  to  Rome 
the  greatest  consternation  ensued.  The  Emperor  Augustus, 
stunned  by  the  unexpected  blow,  cried  out  repeatedly,  "Quin- 
tilius Varus,  give  me  back  my  legions ! ' ' 

Henceforth  the  hatred  of  Hermann  for  Rome  was  aggra- 
vated by  the  captivity  of  his  wife,  Thusuelda,  who  had  been 
surrendered  by  her  father,  Segestes,  on  the  demand  of  the 


78  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

Romans.  His  wife  he  never  saw  again.  His  child  was  born 
in  captivity.  His  uncle,  Ingomar,  now  joined  him. 

The  brave  Caesar,  called  Germanicus  in  honor  of  his  Ger- 
man campaigns,  now  attempted  the  reconquest  of  the  coun- 
try, but  after  a  number  of  terrible  encounters  with  the  tribes, 
he  was  recalled  through  the  jealousy  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius, 
and  Western  Germany  thereafter  remained  free  from  Roman 
invasion.  Just  previous  to  his  battle  with  Hermann  on  the 
plains  of  Idistavisus,  a  most  extraordinary  historical  incident 
occurred.  Hermann,  coming  to  the  river  Weser,  which  sepa- 
rated the  two  armies,  beheld  his  brother,  Flavins,  on  the 
opposite  bank.  They  had  not  seen  each  other  for  some  years. 
Conversing  in  Latin,  Hermann  sought  to  gain  over  his  brother 
to  the  cause  of  their  common  country.  It  was  in  vain  that 
he  stigmatized  his  military  insignia  as  the  reward  of  degrada- 
tion, appealed  to  him  in  the  name  of  their  country's  gods, 
and  of  their  mother  that  had  borne  them.  Mutual  taunts 
and  threats  followed.  Nothing  but  the  river  prevented  them 
from  fratricidal  strife. 

Hermann's  last  great  achievement  was  the  defeat  of  Mar- 
bodius,  an  ally  of  the  Romans,  and  king  of  the  Marcomanni, 
in  Southeastern  Germany.  Hermann,  who  was  now  deserted 
by  his  uncle,  Ingomar,  through  jealousy,  came  off  victorious 
in  a  long  and  bloody  battle.  Marbodius  fled  to  Rome,  where 
he  died. 

In  his  thirty-seventh  year,  A.  D.  21,  Hermann  was  assas- 
sinated by  one  of  his  kinsmen.  It  is  said  he  aspired  to  king- 
ship. Hermann  left  a  name  which  the  historians  of  the 
nation,  against  whom  he  fought  so  long  and  gloriously,  have 
delighted  to  honor.  Tacitus  says :  ' '  Anninius  was  beyond 
all  question  the  deliverer  of  Germany.  He  fought  against 
the  Romans,  not  like  other  kings  and  generals,  when  they 
were  weak,  but  when  their  empire  was  mighty  and  their  re- 
nown glorious.  Fortune,  indeed,  sometimes  deserted  him ; 
but,  even  when  conquered,  his  noble  character  commanded  the 
veneration  of  his  conqueror.  For  twelve  years,  he  presided 
over  the  destiny  of  Germany ;  and  after  his  death,  they  paid 
him  divine  honors." 

A  colossal  statue  of  Hermann,  ninety  feet  in  height,   on 


HERMANN,  THE  HERO  OF  GERMANY.  79 

which  the  sculptor,  Bandel,  had  employed  his  genius  many 
years,  was  erected  on  an  eminence  near  Detmold,  and  was 
dedicated  by  the  Emperor  William  of  Germany,  in  August, 

1875- 

WlNNEFELD   IN  THE  TEUTOBURGER-WALD. 

Upon  a  rumor  of  a  rising  in  the  north,  Varus  set  his  troops 
in  motion.  It  was  about  the  time  of  the  equinoctial  storms, 
A.  D.  9. 

When  the  long  array  quitted  the  firm  level  ground,  and 
began  to  wind  its  way  among  the  woods,  the  marshes,  and 
the  ravines,  the  difficulties  of  the  march,  even  without  the 
intervention  of  an  armed  foe,  became  fearfully  apparent.  In 
many  places,  the  soil,  sodden  with  rain,  was  impracticable  for 
cavalry,  and  even  for  infantry.  A  heavy  discharge  of 
missiles  from  the  dense  woods  on  either  flank  taught  Varus 
how  serious  was  the  peril.  His  light-armed  auxiliaries,  who 
were  principally  of  Germanic  race,  now  rapidly  deserted,  and 
it  was  impossible  to  deploy  the  legionaries  on  such  broken 
ground.  '  Choosing  one  of  the  most  open  and  firm  spots,  the 
Romans  halted  and  formed  their  camp.  On  the  morrow  they 
renewed  their  march.  For  some  distance  Varus  was  allowed 
to  move  on,  only  harassed  by  slight  skirmishes,  but  strug- 
gling with  difficulty  through  the  broken  ground,  the  toil  and 
distress  of  his  men  being  aggravated  by  heavy  torrents  of 
rain,  which  burst  upon  the  devoted  legions. 

After  some  little  time  the  Roman  van  approached  a  ridge 
of  high  woody  ground,  which  is  one  of  the  offshoots  of  the 
great  Hercynian  forest.  Arminius  had  caused  barricades  of 
hewn  trees  to  be  formed  here Fatigue  and  dis- 
couragement now  began  to  betray  themselves  in  the  Roman 
ranks.  Their  lines  became  less  steady ;  baggage-wagons 
were  abandoned  from  the  impossibility  of  forcing  them 
along ;  and  as  this  happened,  many  soldiers  left  their  ranks 
and  crowded  round  the  wagons  to  secure  the  most  valuable 
portions  of  their  property  ;  each  was  busy  about  his  own 
affairs,  and  purposely  slow  in  hearing  the  word  of  command 
from  his  officers.  Arminius  now  gave  the  signal  for  a  general 
attack.  The  fierce  shouts  of  the  Germans  pealed  through 


80  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS- 

the  gloom  of  the  forests,  and  in  thronging  multitudes  they 
assailed  the  flanks  of  the  invaders,  pouring  in  clouds  of  darts 
on  the  encumbered  legionaries,  as  they  struggled  up  the  glen 
or  floundered  in  the  morasses. 

Arminius,  with  a  chosen  band  of  retainers,  cheered 
on  his  countrymen  by  voice  and  example.  They  aimed 
their  weapons  particularly  at  the  horses  of  the  Roman 
cavalry.  The  wounded  animals,  slipping  about  in  the  mire 
and  their  own  blood,  threw  their  riders  and  plunged  among 
the  ranks  of  the  legions,  disordering  all  round  them.  Varus 
now  ordered  the  troops  to  be  countermarched.  But  retreat 
was  as  impracticable  as  advance  ;  and  the  falling  back  of  the 
Romans  only  augmented  the  courage  of  their  assailants. 
The  Roman  cavalry  commander,  Numonius  Vala,  rode  off 
with  his  squadrons  in  the  vain  hope  of  escaping  by  thus 
abandoning  his  comrades.  Unable  to  keep  together,  or  force 
their  way  across  the  woods  and  swamps,  the  horsemen  were 
overpowered  in  detail,  and  slaughtered  to  the  last  man.  The 
Roman  infantry  still  held  together  and  resisted  desperately. 

Varus,  after  being  severely  wounded  in  a  charge  of  the 
Germans,  against  his  part  of  the  column,  committed  suicide  to 
avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  those  whom  he  had  exasperated 
by  his  oppressions.  Mercy  to  a  fallen  foe  had  never  been  a 
Roman  virtue,  and  those  among  her  legions  who  now  laid 
down  their  arms  in  hope  of  quarter,  drank  deep  of  the  cup  of 
suffering,  which  Rome  had  held  to  the  lips  of  many  a  brave 
but  unfortunate  enemy.  The  infuriated  Germans  slaughtered 
their  oppressors  with  deliberate  ferocity.  One  body  of  brave 
veterans  arraying  themselves  in  a  ring  on  a  little  mound,  beat 
off  every  charge  of  the  Germans,  and  prolonged  their  honor- 
able resistance  to  the  close  of  that  dreadful  day.  The  traces 
of  a  feeble  attempt  at  forming  a  ditch,  attested  in  after  years 
the  spot  where  the  last  of  the  Romans  passed  their  night  of 
suffering  and  despair.  But  on  the  morrow,  this  remnant  also, 
worn  out  with  hunger,  wounds,  and  toil,  was  charged  by  the 
victorious  Germans,  and  either  massacred  on  the  spot  or 
offered  up  in  fearful  rites  at  the  altars  of  the  deities. — SIR 
E.  S.  CREASY. 


HERMANN,  THE  HERO  OF  GERMANY.  8 1 

ARMINIUS. 

The  address  of  Hermann  or  Arminius  to  his  renegade  brother  Flavins 
when  they  met  on  the  banks  of  the  Weser. 

Back, — back ! — he  fears  not  foaming  flood 

Who  fears  not  steel-clad  line ! 
No  offspring  this  of  German  blood, — 

No  brother  thou  of  mine  ; 
Some  bastard  spawn  of  menial  birth, — 

Some  bound  and  bartered  slave  : 
Back, — back  ! — for  thee  our  native  earth 

Would  be  a  foreign  grave! 

Away!  be  mingled  with  the  rest 

Of  that  thy  chosen  tribe  ; 
And  do  the  tyrant's  high  behest, 

And  earn  the  robber's  bribe  ; 
And  win  the  chain  to  gird  the  neck, 

The  gems  to  hide  the  hilt, 
And  blazon  honor's  hapless  wreck 

With  all  the  gauds  of  guilt. 

And  wouldst  thou  have  me  share  the  prey  ? 

By  all  that  I  have  done, 
By  Varus'  bones,  which  day  by  day 

Are  whitening  in  the  sun, — 
The  legion's  shattered  panoply, 

The  eagle's  broken  wing, 
I  would  not  be,  for  earth  and  sky, 

So  loathed  and  scorned  a  thing! 

Ho!  bring  me  here  the  wizard,  boy, 

Of  most  surprising  skill, 
To  agonize,  and  not  destroy, 

To  palsy,  and  not  kill : 
If  there  be  truth  in  that  dread  art, 

In  song,  and  spell,  and  charm, 
Now  let  them  torture  the  base  heart, 

And  wither  the  false  arm! 

I  curse  him  by  our  country's  gods, 

The  terrible,  the  dark, 
The  scatterers  of  the  Roman  rods 

The  quellers  of  the  bark! 


82  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

They  fill  a  cup  with  bitter  woe, 

They  fill  it  to  the  brim : 
Where  shades  of  warriors  feast  below, 

That  cup  shall  be  for  him! 

Oh,  misery,  that  such  a  vow 

On  such  a  head  should  be! 
Why  comes  he  not,  my  brother,  now, 

To  fight  or  fall  with  me, — 
To  be  my  mate  in  banquet  bowl, 

My  guard  in  battle  throng, 
And  worthy  of  his  father's  soul 

And  of  his  country's  song? 

But  it  is  past : — where  heroes  press 

And  spoilers  bend  the  knee, 
Arminius  is  not  brotherless, — 

His  brethren  are  the  free  ! 
They  come  around;  one  hour,  and  light 

Will  fade  from  turf  and  tide ; 
Then  onward,  onward  to  the  fight, 

With  darkness  for  our  guide  ! 

To-night,  to-night, — when  we  shall  meet 

In  combat  face  to  face, — 
There  only  would  Arminius  greet 

The  renegade's  embrace ; 
The  canker  of  Rome's  guilt  shall  be 

Upon  his  Roman  name, 
And  as  he  lives  in  slavery, 

So  shall  he  die  in  shame ! 

W.  M.  PRAED. 


THE  FOUNDER  OF  ROME 


THE  prevalent  tradition  of  the 
Roman  people,  which  has  been 
confirmed  to  all  posterity  by  their 
great  historian  Livy,  declared 
that  Rome  was  founded  by  Rom- 
ulus in  the  year  753  B.C.  His 
ancestry  was  traced  to  ^neas, 
who,  according  to  the  story  which 
forms  the  basis  of  Virgil's  great 
epic,  led  a  band  of  Trojans  to 
Italy.  Ascanius  or  lulus,  the  son  of  JEneas,  founded  Alba 
Longa,  and  there  his  descendants  reigned  for  three  centuries. 
Then  Numitor  was  deprived  of  the  kingdom  by  his  brother 
Amulius,  and  his  daughter,  Rhea  Sylvia,  was  made  a  Vestal 
virgin.  She,  however,  bore  twins,  who  were  said  to  be  the 
offspring  of  the  god  Mars.  Their  uncle  caused  them  to  be 
placed  in  a  basket  and  thrown  into  the  Tiber.  The  river 
wafted  them  to  the  foot  of  the  Palatine  hill,  where  a  she-wolf 
gave  them  suck  until  they  were  rescued  by  Faustulus,  the 
king's  shepherd.  By  him  they  were  placed  under  the  care  of 
his  wife,  and  afterwards  brought  up  as  shepherds  under  the 
names  of  Romulus  and  Remus.  They  excelled  in  strength 
and  courage ;  but  having  engaged  in  conflict  with  the  shep- 
herds of  Numitor,  they  were  seized  and  brought  before  their 
grandfather. 

Faustulus  now  disclosed  the  secret  of  their  birth,  and  they 
were  encouraged  to  attack  the  tyrant  Amulius.  When  they 
had  conquered  and  slain  him,  Numitor  gave  them  a  tract  of 
land  on  the  Tiber.  The  brothers  entered  into  a  contest  for 
the  honor  of  founding  a  city,  and  appeal  was  made  to  augury. 
Remus  standing  on  the  Aventine  hill  was  the  first  to  observe 

83 


84  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

the  flight  of  six  vultures;  but  Romulus  on  the  Palatine 
saw  twelve  immediately  after,  and  was  regarded  by  the  people 
as  most  favored  of  heaven.  Romulus,  therefore,  according  to 
Etruscan  custom,  yoked  together  a  bull  and  a  heifer,  and  with 
a  brazen  plough-share,  marked  a  furrow  around  the  Palatine 
hill.  Then  he  commenced  the  building  of  the  wall ;  but 
Remus,  in  derision,  leaped  over  it,  exclaiming,  "Can  such 
defences  protect  your  city?  "  He  was  struck  dead  by  Romu- 
lus, who  cried,  "  So  perish  all  who  dare  to  surmount  these 
ramparts  ! "  Long  afterwards,  amid  the  gloom  of  their  civil 
wars,  Romans  declared  that  the  frightful  slaughter  of  fellow- 
citizens  in  their  day  had  been  prefigured  by  this  fratricide  at 
the  foundation.  Yet  some  expiation  was  believed  to  have  been 
made  by  the  institution  of  a  festival  in  commemoration  of 
Reinus. 

Romulus  opened  a  place  of  refuge,  to  which  many  restless 
and  criminal  characters  from  surrounding  tribes  resorted. 
But  the  tribes  refused  to  give  these  outlaws  their  daughters  in 
marriage.  Romulus,  therefore,  proclaimed  a  celebration  of 
games  in  honor  of  a  newly-found  deity.  These  games  were 
attended  by  crowds  from  the  neighboring  towns ;  but  while 
the  men  were  watching  the  sports,  the  young  women  were 
seized  by  the  Roman  youth.  War  was  declared  by  one  tribe 
after  another ;  but  in  every  fight  the  Romans  were  victorious. 
Then  the  Sabines  came,  under  their  King,  Titus  Tatius,  and 
by  the  treachery  of  Tarpeia,  secured  possession  of  a  fortress. 
During  the  battle  which  ensued,  the  women  ran  down  from  the 
Palatine,  and  besought  their  fathers  and  their  husbands  to 
cease  from  hostilities.  Peace  was  made,  and  the  two  peoples 
became  one  under  the  name  Quirites,  yet  retained  both 
kings  in  joint  power  for  five  years,  until  Tatius  was  slain  in 
war  with  another  town. 

Romulus  now  reigned  alone  and  made  successful  wars  upon 
the  Etruscans.  He  also  established  the  organization  of  his 
people  in  three  tribes,  dwelling  on  neighboring  hills.  After 
a  prosperous  reign  of  thirty-seven  years  he  called  an  assembly 
of  the  people  in  the  field  of  Mars.  A  terrible  storm  arose,  and 
when  it  abated,  Romulus  had  disappeared.  The  soothsayers 
declared  him  to  have  been  carried  to  heaven  in  the  chariot  of 


ROMULUS,    THE   FOUNDER  OP  ROME-  85 

his  father,  the  god  of  war.  Julius  Procelus  allayed  the  fears 
of  the  people  by  telling  them  how  he  had  seen  the  shade  of 
Romulus  on  the  way  from  Alba,  and  that  the  hero  had  bade 
them  not  to  weep,  but  to  be  brave  and  warlike,  and  thus  they 
should  make  their  city  great.  Regarding  their  founder  now  as 
a  god,  the  people  worshiped  him  under  the  name  Quirinus. 
In  later  and  more  sceptical  times  some  Romans  asserted  that 
Romulus  had  been  murdered  and  his  body  concealed  by  the 
Senators. 

THE  RAPE  OF  THE  SABINE  VIRGINS. 

In  the  fourth  month  after  the  building  of  the  city,  the 
rape  of  the  Sabine  women  was  put  in  execution.  Some  say 
Romulus  himself,  who  was  naturally  warlike  and  persuaded 
by  certain  oracles  that  the  Fates  had  decreed  Rome  to  obtain 
her  greatness  by  military  achievements,  began  hostilities 
against  the  Sabines,  and  seized  only  thirty  virgins,  being  more 
desirous  of  war  than  of  wives  for  his  people.  But  this  is  not 
likely.  For,  as  he  saw  his  city  soon  filled  with  inhabitants, 
very  few  of  whom  were  married  ;  the  greatest  part  consisted 
of  a  mixed  rabble  of  mean  and  obscure  persons,  to  whom  no 
regard  was  paid,  and  who  were  not  expecting  to  settle  in  any 
place  whatever,  the  enterprise  naturally  took  that  turn  ;  and 
he  hoped  that  from  this  attempt,  though  not  a  just  one,  some 
alliance  or  union  with  the  Sabines  would  be  obtained,  when 
it  appeared  that  they  treated  the  women  kindly.  In  order  to 
do  this,  he  first  gave  out  that  he  had  found  the  altar  of  some 
god,  which  had  been  covered  with  earth.  Upon  this  discovery, 
Romulus,  by  proclamation,  appointed  a  day  for  a  splendid 
sacrifice,  with  public  games  and  shows.  Multitudes  assem- 
bled at  the  time,  and  he  himself  presided,  sitting  among  his 
nobles,  clothed  in  purple.  As  a  signal  for  the  assault,  he  was 
to  rise,  gather  up  his  robe,  and  fold  it  about  him.  Many  of 
his  people  wore  swords  that  day,  and  kept  their  eyes  upon 
him,  watching  for  the  signal,  which  was  no  sooner  given  than 
they  drew  them,  and  rushing  on  with  a  shout,  seized  the 
daughters  of  the  Sabines,  but  quietly  suffered  the  men  to 
escape.  Some  say  thirty  were  carried  off,  who  each  gave 
name  to  a  tribe ;  but  Valerius  Antias  makes  their  number 


86  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS    EVENTS. 

537  ;  and  according  to  Juba,  there  were  683,  all  virgins.  This 
was  the  best  apology  for  Roinulus;  for  they  had  taken  but 
one  married  woman,  named  Hersilia,  who  was  afterwards 
chiefly  concerned  in  reconciling  them  ;  and  her  they  took  by 
mistake,  as  they  were  not  incited  to  this  violence  by  lust  or 
injustice,  but  by  their  desire  to  conciliate  and  unite  the  tw® 
nations  in  the  strongest  ties.  Hersilia  was  married  to  Hos- 
tilius,  one  of  the  most  eminent  men  among  the  Romans. 

The  Sabines  were  a  numerous  and  warlike  people ;  but 
they  dwelt  in  unwalled  towns,  thinking  it  became  them,  who 
were  a  colony  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  to  be  bold  and  fearless . 
But  as  they  saw  themselves  bound  by  such  pledges,  and  were 
very  solicitous  for  their  daughters,  they  sent  ambassadors  to 
Romulus  with  moderate  and  equitable  demands :  That  he 
should  return  them  the  young  women,  and  disavow  the  vio- 
lence, and  then  the  two  nations  should  proceed  to  establish  a 
correspondence  and  contract  alliances  in  a  friendly  and  legal 
way.  Romulus,  however,  refused  to  part  with  the  young 
women,  and  entreated  the  Sabines  to  give  their  sanction  to 
what  had  been  done;  whereupon  some  of  them  lost  time  in 
consulting  and  making  preparations.  But  Acron,  king  of  the 
Ceninenses,  a  man  of  spirit,  and  an  able  general,  suspected 
the  tendency  of  Romulus'  first  enterprises;  and,  when  he 
had  behaved  so  boldly  in  the  rape,  looked  upon  him  as  one 
that  would  grow  formidable,  and  indeed  insufferable  to  his 
neighbors,  except  he  were  chastised.  Acron,  therefore,  went 
to  seek  the  enemy,  and  Romulus  prepared  to  receive  him. 
When  they  came  in  sight,  and  had  well  viewed  each  other,  a 
challenge  for  single  combat  was  mutually  given,  their  forces 
standing  under  arms  in  silence.  Romulus  on  this  occasion 
made  a  vow,  that  if  he  conquered  his  enemy,  he  would  him- 
self dedicate  his  adversary's  arms  to  Jupiter ;  in  consequence 
of  which  he  both  overcame  Acron,  and,  after  battle  was 
joined,  routed  his  army  and  took  his  city.  But  he  did  no 
injury  to  its  inhabitants,  unless  it  were  such  to  order  them  to 
demolish  their  houses,  and  follow  him  to  Rome,  as  citizens 
entitled  to  equal  privileges  with  the  rest.  Indeed,  there  was 
nothing  that  contributed  more  to  the  greatness  of  Rome,  than 


ROMULUS,   THE   FOUNDER  OP  ROME.  87 

that  she  was  always   uniting  and  incorporating  with  herself 
those  whom  she  conquered. 

Romulus  having  considered  how  he  should  perform  his 
vow  in  the  most  acceptable  manner  to  Jupiter,  and  withal 
make  the  procession  most  agreeable  to  his  people,  cut  down  a 
great  oak  that  grew  in  the  camp,  and  hewed  it  into  the  figure 
of  a  trophy ;  to  this  he  fastened  Acron's  whole  suit  of  armor, 
disposed  in  its  proper  form.  Then  he  put  on  his  own  robes, 
and  wearing  a  crown  of  laurel  on  his  head,  his  hair  gracefully 
flowing,  he  took  the  trophy  erect  upon  his  right  shoulder,  and 
so  marched  on,  singing  the  song  of  victory  before  his  troops, 
who  followed  completely  armed,  while  the  citizens  received 
him  with  joy  and  admiration.  This  procession  was  the  origin 
and  model  of  future  triumphs.  The  trophy  was  dedicated  to 
Jupiter  Feretrius. 

After  the  defeat  of  the  Ceninenses,  while  the  rest  of  the 
Sabines  were  busied  in  preparations,  the  people  of  Fidenae, 
Crustumerium,  and  Antemnse,  united  against  the  Romans. 
A  battle  ensued,  in  which  they  were  likewise  defeated,  and 
surrendered  to  Romulus,  their  cities  to  be  spoiled,  their  lands 
to  be  divided,  and  themselves  to  be  transplanted  to  Rome. 
All  the  lands  thus  acquired  he  distributed  among  the  citizens, 
except  what  belonged  to  the  parents  of  the  stolen  virgins  ;  for 
those  he  left  in  the  possession  of  their  former  owners.  The 
rest  of  the  Sabines,  enraged  at  this,  appointed  Tatius  their 
general,  and  carried  war  to  the  gates  of  Rome.  The  city  was 
difficult  of  access,  having  a  strong  garrison  on  the  hill  where 
the  Capitol  now  stands,  commanded  by  Tarpeius.  Tarpeia, 
the  governor's  daughter,  charmed  with  the  golden  bracelets 
of  the  Sabines,  betrayed  the  fort  into  their  hands,  and  asked, 
in  return  for  her  treason,  what  they  wore  on  their  left  arms. 
Tatius  agreeing  to  the  condition,  she  opened  one  of  the  gates 
by  night,  and  let  in  the  Sabines.  Tatius  ordered  the  Sabines 
to  remember  their  promise,  and  to  grudge  Tarpeia  nothing 
which  they  had  on  their  left  arms.  He  was  the  first  to  take 
off  his  bracelet,  and  throw  it  to  her,  and  with  that  his  shield. 
As  every  one  did  the  same,  she  was  overpowered  by  the  gold 
and  shields  thrown  upon  her,  and  sinking  under  the  weight, 


88  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

expired.  *  From  the  place  where  Tarpeia  was  buried  the  hill 
had  the  name  of  the  Tarpeian,  till  Tarquin  consecrated  the 
place  to  Jupiter,  at  which  time  her  bones  were  removed,  and 
so  it  lost  her  name  ;  except  that  part  of  the  Capitol  from 
which  malefactors  are  thrown  down,  which  is  still  called  the 
Tarpeian  rock. 

The  Sabines  thus  possessed  of  the  fort,  Romulus  in  great 
fury  offered  them  battle,  which  Tatius  did  not  decline,  as  he 
saw  he  had  a  place  of  strength  to  retreat  to,  in  case  he  was 
worsted.  And,  indeed,  the  spot  on  which  he  was  to  engage, 
being  surrounded  with  hills,  seemed  to  promise  on  both  sides 
a  sharp  and  bloody  contest,  because  it  was  so  confined,  and 
the  outlets  were  so  narrow,  that  it  was  not  easy  either  to  fly 
or  to  pursue.  It  happened,  too,  that  a  few  days  before  the 
river  had  overflowed,  and  left  a  deep  mud  on  the  plain,  where 
the  Forum  now  stands ;  which,  as  it  was  covered  with  a  crust, 
was  not  easily  discoverable  by  the  eye,  but  at  the  same  time 
was  soft  underneath  and  impracticable.  The  Sabines,  igno- 
rant of  this,  were  pushing  forward  into  it,  but  by  good  fortune 
were  prevented.  For  Curtius,  a  man  of  high  distinction  and 
spirit,  being  mounted  on  a  good  horse,  advanced  a  considerable 
way  before  the  rest.  Presently  his  horse  plunged  into  the 
slough,  and  for  a  while  he  endeavored  to  disengage  him, 
encouraging  him  with  his  voice,  and  urging  him  with  blows  ; 
but  finding  all  ineffectual,  he  quitted  him  and  saved  himself. 
From  him  the  place,  to  this  very  time,  is  called  the  Curtian 
Lake. 

The  Sabines,  having  escaped  this  danger,  began  the  fight 
with  great  bravery.  The  victory  inclined  to  neither  side, 
though  many  were  slain,  and  among  the  rest  Hostilius  ;  who, 
they  say,  was  husband  to  Hersilia,  and  grandfather  to  that 
Hostilius  who  reigned  after  Numa.  It  is  probable  there  were 
many  other  battles  in  a  short  time  ;  but  the  most  memorable 
was  the  last,'  in  which  Romulus,  having  received  a  blow 
upon  the  head  with  a  stone,  was  almost  beaten  down  to  the 
ground,  and  no  longer  able  to  oppose  the  enemy ;  then  the 

*Piso  and  other  historians,  say  that  Tatius  treated  her  in  this  manner 
because  she  acted  a  double  part,  and  endeavored  to  betray  the  Sabines  to 
Romulus,  while  she  was  pretending  to  betray  the  Romans  to  them. 


ROMULUS,   THE  FOUNDER  OF  ROME.  89 

Romans  gave  way,  and  were  driven  from  the  plain  as  far  as 
the  Palatine  Hill.  By  this  time  Romulus,  recovering  from 
the  shock,  endeavored  by  force  to  stop  his  men  in  their  flight, 
and  loudly  called  upon  them  to  stand  and  renew  the  engage- 
ment. But  when  he  saw  the  rout  was  general,  and  that  no 
one  had  courage  to  face  about,  he  lifted  up  his  hands  towards 
heaven,  and  prayed  to  Jupiter  to  stop  the  army,  and  to 
re-establish  and  maintain  the  Roman  cause,  which  was  now 
in  extreme  danger.  When  the  prayer  was  ended,  many  of 
the  fugitives  were  struck  with  reverence  for  their  king,  and 
their  fear  was  changed  into  courage.  They  first  stopped 
where  now  stands  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator,  so  called  for 
his  putting  a  stop  to  their  flight.  There  they  engaged  again, 
and  repulsed  the  Sabines  as  far  as  the  palace  now  called 
Regia,  and  the  temple  of  Vesta. 

When  they  were  preparing  here  to  renew  the  combat  with 
the  same  animosity  as  at  first,  their  ardor  was  repressed  by  an 
astonishing  spectacle,  which  the  powers  of  language  are 
unable  to  describe.  The  daughters  of  the  Sabines  that  had 
been  forcibly  carried  off,  appeared  rushing  this  way  and  that 
with  loud  cries  and  lamentations,  like  persons  distracted, 
amidst  the  drawn  swords  and  over  the  dead  bodies,  to  come 
at  their  husbands  and  fathers  ;  some  carrying  their  infants  in 
their  arms,  some  darting  forward  with  disheveled  hair,  but 
all  calling  by  turns,  both  upon  the  Sabines  and  the  Romans, 
by  the  tenderest  names.  Both  parties  were  extremely  moved, 
and  room  was  made  for  them  between  the  two  armies.  Their 
lamentations  pierced  to  the  utmost  ranks,  and  all  were  deeply 
affected ;  particularly  when  their  upbraiding  and  complaints 
ended  in  supplication  and  entreaty.  ' '  What  great  injury  have 
we  done  you,"  said  they,  u  that  we  have  suffered,  and  do  still 
suffer,  so  many  miseries  ?  We  were  carried  off,  by  those  who 
now  have  us,  violently  and  illegally.  After  this  violence,  we 
were  so  long  neglected  by  our  brothers,  our  fathers,  and  rela- 
tions, that  we  were  necessitated  to  unite  in  the  strongest  ties 
with  those  that  were  the  objects  of  our  hatred ;  and  we  are 
now  brought  to  tremble  for  the  men  that  had  injured  us  so 
much,  when  we  see  them  in  danger,  and  to  lament  them 
when  they  fall.  For  you  came  not  to  deliver  us  from  violence 


90  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

while  virgins,  or  to  avenge  our  cause,  but  now  you  tear  the 
wives  from  their  husbands,  and  the  mothers  from  their  chil- 
dren ;  an  assistance  more  grievous  to  us  than  all  your  neglect 
and  disregard.  Such  love  we  experienced  from  them,  and 
such  compassion  from  you.  Were  the  war  undertaken  in 
some  other  cause,  yet  surely  you  would  stop  its  ravages  for 
us,  who  have  made  you  fathers-in-law  and  grandfathers,  or 
otherwise  placed  you  in  some  near  affinity  to  those  whom  you 
seek  to  destroy.  But  if  the  war  be  for  us,  take  us,  with  your 
sons-in-law  and  their  children,  and  restore  us  to  our  parents 
and  kindred ;  but  do  not,  we  beseech  you,  rob  us  of  our  chil- 
dren and  husbands,  lest  we  become  captives  again."  Hersilia 
having  said  a  great  deal  to  this  purpose,  and  others  joining  in 
the  same  request,  a  truce  was  agreed  upon,  and  the  generals 
proceeded  to  a  conference.  In  the  meantime,  the  women 
presented  their  husbands  and  children  to  their  fathers  and 
brothers,  brought  refreshments  to  those  that  wanted  them, 
and  carried  the  wounded  home  to  be  cured.  Here  they 
showed  them  that  they  had  the  ordering  of  their  own  houses, 
what  attentions  their  husbands  paid  them,  and  with  what 
respect  and  indulgence  they  were  treated.  Upon  this  a  peace 
was  concluded,  the  conditions  of  which  were,  that  such  of 
the  women  as  chose  to  remain  with  their  husbands  should  be 
exempt  from  all  labor  and  drudgery,  except  spinning;  that 
the  city  should  be  inhabited  by  the  Romans  and  Sabines  in 
common,  with  the  name  of  Rome,  from  Romulus ;  but  that 
all  the  citizens  from  Cures,  the  capital  of  the  Sabines,  and 
the  country  of  Tatius,  should  be  called  Quirites,  and  that  the 
regal  power,  and  the  command  of  the  army,  should  be  equally 
shared  between  them. — PLUTARCH. 


MARCUS  TULLIUS  CICERO. 


CICERO  was  not  only  the  greatest  orator  of 
ancient  times  except  Demosthenes,  but 
also  an  illustrious  philosopher  and  patri- 
otic statesman.  He  was,  indeed,  the  most 
consummate  specimen  of  the  Roman  char- 
acter formed  under  the  influence  of  Hel- 
lenic culture.  His  voluminous  writings 
gave  permanent  character  to  the  Latin 
language,  and  were  beyond  all  others  the 
means  of  transmitting  ancient  culture  to 
modern  times. 

Marcus  Tullius  Cicero  was  born  at  Arpinurn  (now  Arpino) 
in  January,  106  B.  c.,  the  son  of  M.  Tullius  Cicero,  an  opulent 
plebeian  of  the  equestrian  order.  He  was  liberally  educated 
at  Rome  under  the  direction  of  numerous  teachers,  among 
whom  were  Archias,  the  Greek  poet,  whom  he  defended  and 
eulogized  in  one  of  his  extant  orations,  and  Philo  the  Acade- 
mic philosopher.  Cicero  learned  to  speak  Greek  fluently, 
and  became  profoundly  versed  in  Hellenic  literature  and 
culture.  After  studying  law  under  Mucius  Scsevola,  and 
serving  a  campaign  in  the  Social  War  (89  B.C.),  he  perfected 
his  education  by  travel  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  and  by 
the  study  of  philosophy  at  Athens,  where  he  passed  six 
months.  Here  was  formed  his  intimate  and  lasting  friend- 
ship with  Titus  Pomponius  Atticus,  to  which  the  world  owes 
many  of  his  admirable  letters. 

About  the  age  of  twenty-five  he  began  his  career  as  an 
advocate  in  the  Forum,  where  he  soon  eclipsed  in  eloquence 
all  his  competitors,  among  whom  Hortensius  was  the  most 


92  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

eminent  and  most  popular.  Cicero  excelled  in  sarcasm,  in 
witty  repartees  and  good-humored  raillery.  His  gestures 
•were  natural  and  graceful,  and  no  orator  ever  had  greater 
power  over  the  hearts  and  sympathies  of  his  auditors.  Plu- 
tarch states  that  "it  was  not  by  slow  and  insensible  degrees 
that  he  gained  the  palm  of  eloquence :  his  fame  shot  forth  at 
once,  and  he  was  distinguished  above  all  the  orators  of 
Rome."  As  custom  and  the  public  opinion  of  his  age 
required,  his  services  as  an  advocate  were  always  gratuitous. 
At  the  age  of  thirty  he  married  a  noble  lady,  a  rich  heiress, 
named  Terentia.  His  income,  which  was  evidently  very  ample, 
was  greatly  increased  by  the  legacies  which  he  received  in 
the  course  of  his  life. 

In  76  B.C.,  Cicero  was  elected  quaestor  (paymaster).  This 
office  was  the  first  step  in  the  ladder  of  political  promotion 
in  Rome,  and  entitled  him  to  admission  into  the  Senate  for 
life.  The  quaestors,  many  of  whom  were  elected  annually, 
were  sent  to  the  provinces,  one  with  each  Consul  or  Pro- con- 
sul, to  whom  he  was  second  in  power  and  authority.  During 
Cicero's  discharge  of  the  duties  of  quaestor  in  the  Province 
of  Sicily  he  gained  honor  and  popularity  by  his  humanity, 
probity  and  moderation.  Returning  to  Rome  in  74  B.C.,  he 
resumed  his  place  in  the  Forum.  It  was  his  general  rule  and 
favorite  practice  to  act  as  counsel  for  the  defense  in  criminal 
trials.  In  70  B.C.,  Caius  Verres,  who  had  been  praetor  of 
Sicily,  was  impeached  for  enormous  cruelty  and  rapine  by  the 
Sicilians,  but  was  defended  or  abetted  by  the  aristocracy  and 
most  powerful  men  of  Rome.  The  Sicilians  regarded  Cicero 
as  their  firm  friend,  and  insisted  on  his  pleading  their  cause  in 
this  very  celebrated  trial.  Verres,  in  no  way  dismayed,  em- 
ployed Hortensius  to  defend  him.  But  Cicero  gained  his 
cause  and  increased  his  fame  by  the  seven  great  and  admira- 
ble orations  he  prepared  against  Verres,  though  only  two  of 
them  were  actually  delivered  in  court.  Overcome  by  the 
damning  array  of  evidence,  Hortensius  declined  to  plead,  and 
Verres  absconding,  exiled  himself  in  Gaul. 

Cicero  was  elected  sedile  by  a  large  majority  in  69  B.C., 
the  first  year  in  which  his  election  was  possible,  as  no  citizen 
was  eligible  to  this  responsible  office  until  he  was  thirty-eight 


MARCUS  TULUUS  CICERO.  93 

years  old.  It  was  the  duty  of  the  aediles  to  take  care  of  the 
temples  and  public  buildings,  to  keep  the  streets  clean,  etc. 
He  kept  up  his  practice  as  an  advocate  during  his  term  of 
public  office.  In  the  year  67  B.C.,  he  was  a  candidate  for  the 
office  of  praetor,  and  was  elected  prcztor-urbanus  by  the  suf- 
frages of  all  the  centuries,  or  voting  divisions  of  the  Romans. 
His  duty  as  praetor  was  to  preside  as  judge  over  the  highest 
courts  in  Rome.  Of  the  eight  praetors  elected  at  the  same 
time,  the  pr&tor-urbanus  was  considered  the  highest  in 
authority.  The  most  important  event  during  his  prsetorship 
occured  in  66  B.C.,  when  he  delivered  his  brilliant  political 
oration  for  the  Manilian  Law,  the  object  of  which  was  to 
give  Pornpey  the  chief  command  and  unlimited  power  in  the 
war  against  Mithridates  the  Great.  This  was  the  first  time 
Cicero  ever  addressed  the  people  in  a  public  meeting  from  the 
rostra.  The  result  was  that  the  command  was  given  to 
Pompey  against  the  will  of  many  optimates  and  powerful 
senators.  Though  seemingly  necessary  at  the  time,  it  paved 
the  way  for  the  subsequent  gift  of  similar  power  to  Caesar. 

Cicero  had  now  a  just  right  to  aspire  to  the  office  of 
Consul,  the  highest  office  in  the  scale  of  public  honors.  He 
had  six  competitors,  among  whom  were  L,.  Sergius  Catilina 
and  C.  Antonius  (an  uncle  of  Mark  Antony),  who  were 
favored  by  Caesar  and  Crassus.  The  optimates  or  nobles 
opposed  Cicero  because  he  was  a  new  man,  that  is,  one  whose 
ancestors  had  held  no  high  office.  Yet  he  was  chosen  Consul 
by  the  unanimous  acclamation  of  the  citizens.  C.  Antonius, 
an  ignoble  and  rather  feeble  man,  was  chosen  as  his  colleague. 
Cicero  entered  upon  the  office  of  Consul  on  the  ist  of  Janu- 
ary, 63  B.C.  During  his  consular  year  he  continued  to 
practice  as  an  advocate  in  the  Forum,  for,  according  to 
Roman  notions,  no  office  was  so  high  as  to  exempt  an  emi- 
nent pleader  from  the  duty  of  defending  his  friends.  The 
republic  was  then  in  a  turbulent  and  perilous  condition,  and 
Cicero  firmly  believed  that  he  promoted  the  cause  of  liberty 
and  order  by  inducing  the  senators  and  the  equites  or  knights, 
to  form  a  coalition;  and  again  when  by  a  powerful  and  bril- 
liant speech,  he  persuaded  the  people  to  reject  an  agrarian 
law  proposed  by  the  tribune  Rullus. 


94  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

The  most  brilliaiit  and  memorable  achievement  of  his 
administration  was  his  defeat  of  the  audacious  conspiracy  of 
Catiline,  in  dealing  with  which  he  acted  with  consummate 
courage,  prudence  and  decision,  and  gained  unbounded 
applause.  Catiline,  who  was  a  depraved  man  of  superior 
talents,  great  resources  and  excessive  audacity,  was  a  candi- 
date for  the  consulship  in  63  B.C.,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
leader  of  a  large  band  of  ruffians  and  desperate  men  who  con- 
spired to  burn  the  city  and  massacre  the  senators  and  friends 
of  order.  He  hired  assassins  to  kill  Cicero  ;  but  they  failed, 
and  he  was  again  defeated  in  the  election.  Troops  were  now 
levied  by  or  for  Catiline  in  Etruria,  and  he  was  nearly  ready 
for  the  execution  of  his  plot  when  the  consul  was  informed 
of  it  by  Fulvia,  the  mistress  of  one  of  the  conspirators.  On 
the  8th  of  November  Cicero  delivered  in  the  senate  the  first  of 
his  four  famous  orations  against  Catiline,  who  was  present. 
The  conspirator,  baffled  by  the  disclosure  of  his  treason,  de- 
parted hastily  to  his  rebel  army,  and  was  killed  in  battle  in 
the  following  January.  Lentulus,  Cethegus  and  other  con- 
spirators were  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  consul.  Men  of 
all  ranks  and  all  parties  now  saluted  Cicero  as  the  saviour  of 
Rome  and  the  father  of  his  country.  During  the  momentous 
crisis  of  this  conspiracy  and  before  the  death  of  Catiline, 
Cicero  defended  Muraena  against  a  charge  of  bribery  in  a 
witty  and  admirable  oration — a  signal  demonstration  of  the 
agility  and  elasticity  of  his  mind. 

When  he  retired  from  the  office  of  Consul,  he  declined  the 
government  of  a  province  and  remained  in  Rome  with  no 
office  but  that  of  senator.  This  course  was  rendered  necessary 
by  the  renewed  activity  of  his  political  opponents.  His 
favorite  country  residence  was  a  villa  at  Tusculum,  which 
has  been  immortalized  by  his  philosophical  works  composed 
there, — called  the  "  Tusculan  Disputations."  He  owned 
other  country  seats  and  a  fine  mansion  on  the  Palatine  hill. 

When  Caesar,  Crassus,  and  Pompey  united  to  form  the 
first  Triumvirate,  about  60  B.C.,  Cicero  refused  to  favor  it,  as 
being  dangerous  to  public  liberty  and  peace.  He  had  been  a 
personal  and  political  friend  of  Pompey,  and  still  he  hoped 
that  this  great  general  would  be  loyal  to  the  republic,  though 


MARCUS  TUUJUS  CICERO.  95 

he  had  reason  to  suspect  him  of  coldness  and  insincerity 
towards  himself.  In  59  B.  c. ,  P.  Clodius,  a  demagogue  and  an 
enemy  to  Cicero,  obtained  the  office  of  tribune,  being  sup- 
ported by  Csesar  and  Pompey.  Clodius  procured  the  enactment 
of  a  law  that  Cicero  should  be  banished  four  hundred  miles 
from  Rome,  for  putting  Roman  citizens  (Lentulus  and  other 
conspirators)  to  death  without  regular  form  of  law.  For 
his  place  of  exile  Cicero  chose  Greece,  and  went  thither  in 
April,  58.  The  violence  and  insolence  of  Clodius  soon  pro- 
duced a  reaction.  In  August,  57,  a  bill  for  Cicero's  restora- 
tion was  approved  by  the  nearly  unanimous  vote  of  the  free- 
men of  all  Italy.  There  had  never  been  known  so  numer- 
ous and  solemn  an  assembly  of  the  Roman  people  as  this. 
His  Palatine  mansion,  which  had  been  burnt  by  Clodius,  was 
rebuilt  at  the  public  expense.  Five  years  after  his  return 
from  exile,  he  was  appointed  pro-consul  of  Cilicia  and  Pisidia, 
where  he  acted  with  rare  moderation,  clemency  and  probity. 
When  he  returned  to  Rome  in  50  B.C.,  a  civil  war  was  im- 
minent between  the  Senate  and  Caesar.  Cicero  was  one  of  the 
few  pagan  statesmen  who  can  be  described  as  thoroughly  con- 
scientious. Agreeing  with  the  aims  of  neither  party  abso- 
lutely, he  desired  to  act  as  mediator  and  peace-maker,  and 
hesitated  whether  he  should  actively  support  either.  "He 
fluctuated  greatly,"  says  Plutarch,  "  for  he  says  in  his  letters, 
'Whither  shall  I  turn?  Pompey  has  the  most  honorable 
cause;  but  Caesar  manages  his  affairs  with  the  greatest 
address,  and  is  most  able  to  save  himself  and  his  friends.'  ' 
However,  Cicero  joined  the  army  of  Pompey  in  49  B.C. 
Though  oppressed  with  anxiety,  he  retained  his  power  of 
repartee.  Pompey  asked,  ' '  Where  is  your  son-in-law  (Dola- 
bella)  ?  ' '  Cicero  replied  ' '  He  is  with  your  father-in-law 
(Caesar). ' '  Cicero  witnessed  the  assassination  of  Caesar  (44  B.  c. ), 
and  applauded  the  act.  He  also  denounced  Mark  Antony  in  a 
series  of  fourteen  famous  orations  called  Philippics,  the  second 
of  which  Juvenal  calls  "the  divine  Philippic."  While  the 
nation  was  convulsed  by  civil  war  and  anarchy,  he  sought 
consolation  in  his  favorite  philosophy  and  wrote  an  excellent 
essay  "On  Duties,"  and  another  "On  the  Nature  of  the 
Gods. ' '  But  his  voluntary  retirement  from  public  affairs  did 


96  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

not  save  him  from  the  vengeance  of  Antony.  He  was  pro- 
scribed by  the  Triumvirs,  and  was  killed  by  the  soldiers  of 
Antony  in  December,  43  B.C. 

Cicero's  extant  works  comprise  over  fifty  Orations,  many 
Essays,  and  more  than  eight  hundred  letters,  which  are  highly 
prized  as  models  of  pure  and  elegant  Latinity.  The  letters 
are  the  best  in  any  language.  His  Orations  and  Essays  dis- 
play a  profound  knowledge  of  human  nature,  and  he  is  not 
excelled  by  any  of  the  ancients  in  what  the  French  call  esprit 
— light,  unexpected,  inexhaustible  wit.  He  elevated  and 
adorned  every  subject  which  he  touched.  As  all  the  greatest 
Latin  authors  were  born  after  Cicero,  it  appears  that  he  is 
entitled  to  the  honor  of  forming  and  perfecting  the  Latin 
language — the  most  regular  and  ' '  the  most  heroic  language 
ever  spoken  by  men ."  The  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  truly 
says,  "As  a  specimen  of  the  highest  culture  of  the  ancient 
world,  both  moral  and  intellectual,  Cicero  must  ever  stand 
pre-eminent." 

CICERO  AGAINST  VERRES. 

I  ask  now,  Verres,  what  have  you  to  advance  against  this 
charge  ?  Will  you  pretend  to  deny  it  ?  Will  you  pretend 
that  anything  false,  that  even  anything  aggravated,  is  alleged 
against  you  ?  Had  any  prince,  or  any  state,  committed  the 
same  outrage  against  the  privileges  of  Roman  citizens, 
should  we  not  think  we  had  sufficient  reason  for  declaring 
immediate  war  against  them?  What  punishment,  then, 
ought  to  be  inflicted  on  a  tyrannical  and  wicked  praetor,  who 
dared,  at  no  greater  distance  than  Sicily,  within  sight  of  the 
Italian  coast,  to  put  to  the  infamous  death  of  crucifixion  that 
unfortunate  and  innocent  citizen,  Publius  Gavius  Cosanus, 
only  for  his  having  asserted  his  privilege  of  citizenship  and 
declared  his  intention  of  appealing  to  the  justice  of  his 
country  against  a  cruel  oppressor,  who  had  unjustly  confined 
him  in  prison  at  Syracuse,  whence  he  had  just  made  his 
escape?  The  unhappy  man,  arrested  as  he  was  going  to 
embark  for  his  native  country,  is  brought  before  the  wicked 
praetor.  With  eyes  darting  fury,  and  a  countenance  distorted 
with  cruelty,  he  orders  the  helpless  victim  of  his  rage  to  be 


MARCUS  TULUUS  CICERO.  97 

stripped,  and  rods  to  be  brought ;  accusing  him,  but  without 
the  least  shadow  of  evidence,  or  even  of  suspicion,  of  having 
come  to  Sicily  as  a  spy.  It  was  in  vain  that  the  unhappy 
man  cried  out,  ' '  I  am  a  Roman  citizen,  I  have  served  under 
Lucius  Pretius,  who  is  now  at  Panormus,  and  will  attest  my 
innocence."  The  bloodthirsty  praetor,  deaf  to  all  he  could 
urge  in  his  own  defense,  ordered  the  infamous  punishment  to 
be  inflicted.  Thus,  fathers,  was  an  innocent  Roman  citizen 
publicly  mangled  with  scourging ;  whilst  the  only  words  he 
uttered  amidst  his  cruel  sufferings  were,  ' '  I  am  a  Roman 
citizen  !  "  With  these  he  hoped  to  defend  himself  from  vio- 
lence and  infamy.  But  of  so  little  service  was  this  privilege 
to  him,  that  while  he  was  asserting  his  citizenship,  the  order 
was  given  for  his  execution  ;  for  his  execution  upon  the 
cross  ! 

O  liberty  !  O  sound  once  delightful  to  every  Roman  ear ! 
O  sacred  privilege  of  Roman  citizenship !  once  sacred,  now 
trampled  upon !  But  what  then !  is  it  come  to  this  ?  Shall 
an  inferior  magistrate,  a  governor  who  holds  his  power  of  the 
Roman  people,  in  a  Roman  province,  within  sight  of  Italy, 
bind,  scourge,  torture  with  fire  and  red-hot  plates  of  iron, 
and  at  last  put  to  the  infamous  death  of  the  cross,  a  Roman 
citizen  ?  Shall  neither  the  cries  of  innocence  expiring  in 
agony,  nor  the  tears  of  pitying  spectators,  nor  the  majesty  of 
the  Roman  commonwealth,  nor  the  fear  of  the  justice  of  his 
country,  restrain  the  licentious  and  wanton  cruelty  of  a  mon- 
ster, who,  in  the  confidence  of  his  riches,  strikes  at  the  root 
of  liberty  and  sets  mankind  at  defiance  ? 

CICERO  AGAINST  MARK  ANTONY. 

This  one  day — this  blessed  individual  day — I  say,  this 
very  point  of  time  in  which  I  am  speaking — defend  it,  if  you 
can  !  Why  is  the  Forum  hedged  in  with  armed  troops  ?  Why 
stand  your  satellites  listening  to  me  sword  in  hand  ?  Why 
are  the  gates  of  the  Temple  of  Peace  not  flung  open  ?  Why 
have  you  marched  into  the  town  men  of  all  nations, — but 
chiefly  barbarous  nations, — savages  from  Ituraea,  armed  thus 
with  slings  ? 

You  pretend  that  it  is  all  to  protect  your  person.  Is  it  not 
7 


98  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

better  far  to  die  a  thousand  deaths,  than  be  unable  to  live 
in  one's  own  country  without  guards  of  armed  men  ?  But 
trust  me,  there  is  no  safety  in  defenses  like  these.  We  must 
be  fenced  round  by  the  affections  and  the  good-will  of  our 
country-men,  not  by  their  arms,  if  we  would  be  secure. 

Look  back,  then,  Mark  Antony,  on  that  day  when  you 
abolished  the  Dictatorship ;  set  before  your  eyes  the  delight 
of  the  Senate  and  People  of  Rome ;  contrast  it  with  the  traffic 
you  and  your  followers  are  now  engaged  in — then  you  will  be 
sensible  of  the  vast  difference  between  glory  and  gain. 

But,  if  the  glory  of  great  actions  has  no  charms  for  you, 
cannot  even  fear  deter  you  from  wicked  deeds  ?  You  have 
no  apprehension  of  criminal  prosecutions — be  it  so ;  if  this 
arises  from  conscious  innocence,  I  commend  it ;  but  if  it  pro- 
ceeds from  your  reliance  upon  mere,  force,  do  you  not  perceive 
what  it  is  that  awaits  him  who  has  thus  overcome  the  terrors 
of  the  law? 

But,  if  you  have  no  dread  of  brave  men  and  patriotic  citi- 
zens, because  your  person  is  protected  from  them  by  your 
satellites,  believe  me,  your  own  partisans  will  not  bear  with 
you  much  longer ;  and  what  kind  of  life  is  his  whose  days 
and  nights  are  distracted  with  the  fear  of  his  own  followers  ? 
Unless,  indeed,  you  have  bound  them  to  you  by  greater  obli- 
gations than  those  by  which  Caesar  had  attached  some  of 
the  very  men  who  put  him  to  death ;  or  that  you  can,  in 
any  one  respect,  be  compared  to  him. 

In  him  there  was  genius,  judgment,  memory,  learning, 
circumspection,  reflection,  application.  His  exploits  in  war, 
how  mischievous  soever  to  his  country,  were  yet  transcendent 
Bent  for  years  upon  obtaining  supreme  power,  he  had  accom- 
plished his  object  with  vast  labor,  through  countless  perils. 
By  his  munificence,  by  public  works,  by  largesses,  by  hospi- 
tality, he  had  won  over  the  thoughtless  multitude;  he  had 
attached  his  followers  by  his  generosity,  his  adversaries  by  his 
specious  clemency.  In  a  word,  he  had  introduced  into  a  free 
state,  partly  through  fear  of  him,  partly  through  tolerance  of 
him,  a  familiarity  with  slavery. 

With  that  great  man  I  may  compare  you  as  regards  the  lust 
of  power :  in  no  other  thing  can  you  be,  in  any  manner  or 


MARCUS  TULLJUS  CICERO. 


99 


way,  likened  to  him.  But  out  of  a  thousand  ills  which  he 
forced  into  the  constitution  of  our  commonwealth,  this  one 
good  has  come,  that  the  Roman  people  have  now  learnt  how 
far  each  person  is  to  be  trusted,  to  whom  they  may  commit  them- 
selves, against  whom  they  must  be  on  their  guard.  Do  these 
things  never  pass  through  your  mind  ?  Do  you  not  compre- 
hend that  it  suffices  for  brave  men  to  have  learnt  how  beau- 
tiful the  deed,  how  precious  the  service,  how  glorious  the 
fame  of  extirpating  a  tyrant?  When  mankind  could  not 
endure  Ccesar,  will  they  hear  thee  ?  Henceforward,  trust  me, 
they  will  flock  emulously  to  this  work,  nor  wait  for  the  lin- 
gering opportunity. 

Regard  the  commonwealth  for  a  moment,  Mark  Antony, 
I  do  beseech  you.  Think  of  the  race  you  are  sprung  from, 
not  the  generation  you  live  with.  Be  on  what  terms  you 
please  with  me ;  but  return  into  favor  with  your  country. 
That,  however,  is  your  own  affair — I  will  declare  my  course. 
Young,  I  stood  by  the  country — old,  I  will  not  desert  her.  I 
defied  the  arms  of  Catiline — I  will  not  tremble  at  yours! 
Nay,  I  should  cheerfully  fling  myself  into  the  gulf  if  my 
death  would  restore  the  public  freedom,  and  the  sufferings  of 
the  Roman  people  could  thus  be  exasperated  at  once  to  the 
crisis  which  has  been  so  long  coming  on  ! 

For  truly,  if  it  is  well  nigh  twenty  years  since  I  denied, 
in  this  very  temple,  that  death  ever  could  come  before  its 
time  to  a  man  of  consular  rank,  how  much  more  truly  may  I 
say  so  now,  in  my  old  age  ?  To  me,  Senators,  death  is  even 
desirable,  having  lived  to  finish  all  I  have  undertaken  to 
achieve.  For  two  things  only  I  feel  anxious ;  the  one,  that 
my  eyes  may  close  upon  the  liberties  of  Rome — a  greater  boon 
than  this  Heaven  has  not  to  bestow ;  the  other,  that  that  fate 
may  befall  every  one,  which  his  conduct  to  his  country  has 
earned. — Translated  by  Lord  Brougham. 


CYRUS  THE  GREAT. 


BEFORE  the  time  of  Cyrus,  Persia 
had  been  a  petty  kingdom.  His 
great  victories  over  the  kingdoms  of 
Media,  Lydia  and  Babylonia,  reduced 
them  to  provinces,  so  that  eventually 
his  empire  extended  from  the  Persian 
Gulf  to  the  Black  Sea,  from  Afghan- 
istan to  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

Like  most  of  the  heroes  of  an- 
tiquity, the  classical  legends  assign 
him  an  humble  birth  ;  but  the  revela- 
tions of  the  contemporary  cuneiform 
tablets  give  us  more  authentic  infor- 
mation than  that  of  Herodotus  or 

Ctesias.     We  now  know  that  Cyrus, 

the  Akhaemenian,  as  he  called  him- 
self, was  the  son  of  Cambyses,  grandson  of  Cyrus,  and  great- 
grandson  of  Teispes,  and  ruled  over  the  kingdom  of  Auzan 
(Elam).  In  his  youth  he  was  renowned  for  his  valor.  About 
the  year  549  B.  c.,  having  revolted  against  Astyages,  king 
of  Media,  whose  vassal  he  had  been,  he  dethroned  the  king, 
then  married  his  daughter  and  added  Media  to  the  domain  of 
Persia. 

Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  who  had  increased  his  wealth  and 
power  enormously  by  the  conquest  of  Syria  and  nearly  all  of 
Asia  Minor,  sought  to  check  the  growing  power  of  Cyrus, 
and  therefore  formed  an  alliance  with  Ahmes  II.,  king  of 
Egypt,  and  Nabonidus,  king  of  Babylonia.  This  confedera- 
tion would  very  likely  have  ensured  the  downfall  of  Cyrus, 

IOO 


CYRUS  THE   GREAT.  IOI 

had  not  Croesus  rashly  commenced  the  war  before  there  was 
a  junction  of  the  forces  of  the  allies. 

Cyrus  advanced  to  meet  him  (B.C.  546),  and  after  a  battle 
that  lasted  a  whole  day,  Croesus  retired  northward  with  the 
intention  of  going  into  winter  quarters.  But  Cyrus,  knowing 
well  that  the  delay  of  a  few  months  might  be  fatal  to  his 
cause,  decided  to  follow  the  foe.  He  crossed  the  river  Halys 
despite  the  winter  season  and  pushed  straight  for  Sardis,  the 
capital  of  I/ydia.  Croesus,  though  surprised,  offered  battle. 
His  cavalry  was  the  best  in  the  world,  and  would  have 
obtained  the  victory  but  that  Cyrus  had  guarded  his  front 
with  a  line  of  camels,  whose  odor  so  scared  the  Lydian 
horses  that  they  broke  and  ran  into  the  ranks  of  Croesus. 
The  whole  army,  being  thrown  into  confusion,  was  easily 
defeated  and  fled  into  Sardis.  This  city  was  fortified  to  stand 
a  long  siege  and  Cyrus  made  an  ineffectual  assault  on  the 
works.  But  at  the  expiration  of  a  fortnight  the  city  was 
captured  in  a  singular  manner.  One  of  the  garrison,  having 
accidentally  dropped  his  helmet  from  the  top  of  the  citadel, 
descended  the  embankment  and  ascended  by  the  same  route  ; 
one  of  Cyrus'  soldiers,  having  observed  this  incident,  then 
proposed  and  led  an  escalade  of  this  rocky  ascent,  which  the 
Lydian  engineers  had  neglected  to  guard,  believing  it  inac- 
cessible ;  the  city,  therefore,  was  taken  by  a  surprise. 

All  the  kings  of  the  East  saw  that  they  were  hereafter  at 
the  mercy  of  Persia,  and  consequently  took  care  to  give  no 
cause  for  quarrel.  The  sudden  collapse  of  the  Lydian  mon- 
archy struck  all  Greece  with  a  stupor.  It  was  the  first  time 
that  they  had  witnessed  one  of  those  great  tragedies  with 
which  the  history  of  the  Oriental  world  was  filled.  The 
dynasty  of  Gyges  had  abruptly  ended.  The  career  of  Croesus 
furnished  them  a  theme  the  most  striking  upon  the  instability 
of  human  affairs.  It  was  said  that  Solon,  while  a  guest  at 
the  court  of  Croesus,  was  asked  by  the  king,  "Who  is  the 
happiest  man?"  Solon  had  replied  that  u  No  one  can  judge 
of  the  happiness  of  a  man  while  he  yet  lives."  The 
captured  Croesus  was  ordered  by  Cyrus  to  be  burnt  on  a 
funeral  pyre.  The  unhappy  captive  cried  out,  ' '  Solon  ! 
Solon!  Solon!"  Cyrus,  hearing  these  words,  ordered  Croesus 


102  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

to  be  unbound  from  the  pyre  and  brought  before  him.  After 
that  Croesus  had  explained  the  words  of  Solon,  Cyrus  treated 
the  fallen  king  with  the  greatest  kindness. 

After  the  fall  of  Sardis,  the  lieutenants  of  Cyrus  subjected 
all  Asia  Minor  to  his  rule,  while  the  king  himself  made 
campaigns  into  the  country  to  the  east  of  Persia,  to  Bactria 
and  Tartary.  These  Eastern  campaigns  occupied  about  six 
years  (B.  c.  545-539)  •  Then  came  his  conquest  of  Babylon, 
which  we  give  according  to  the  account  of  M.  Maspero,  the 
French  archaeologist. 

In  the  first  year  of  his  sojourn  at  Babylon,  Cyrus  issued 
his  edict  permitting  the  Jews  to  return  to  Jerusalem,  536  B.C. 
Babylonia  henceforth  was  simply  a  province  of  Persia.  Of 
all  the  potentates  who  had  allied  themselves  against  Persia, 
Ahrnes  II,  of  Egypt,  alone  remained  free  from  a  conflict.  For 
a  moment  that  conflict  seemed  now  at  hand.  It  was  but  a 
moment  that  Cyrus  hesitated,  then  started  on  another  cam- 
paign in  the  East,  and  disappeared  in  a  mysterious  manner 
(B.C.  529).  According  to  Xenophon  he  died  in  his  bed,  sur- 
rounded by  his  children,  edifying  those  who  approached  him 
by  the  wisdom  more  than  human  that  he  evinced.  But  this 
information  is  no  more  authentic  than  are  in  general  the 
statements  of  Persian  affairs  furnished  by  Xenophon.  Accord- 
ing to  Herodotus,  ' '  the  Massagetes  had  the  upper  hand.  The 
greater  part  of  the  Persian  army  lay  on  the  field  of  battle  ; 
Cyrus  himself  perished  there  after  a  reign  of  twenty-nine 
years. ' '  The  Persians  recovered  the  body  of  their  king  and 
brought  it  to  Pasargadse,  where  they  buried  it  sumptuously 
in  the  gardens  of  his  palace. 

CYRUS'  CAPTURE  OF  BABYLON. 

When  Cyrus  turned  his  attention  to  Babylon,  its  king 
was  Nabonidus,  the  son  of  a  high  priest  and  of  Nitocris,  who 
was  probably  of  royal  blood.  Nevertheless,  Nabonidus  was 
an  usurper,  having  attained  the  throne  through  the  influence 
of  the  priesthood.  As  king  he  devoted  great  attention  to  the 
temples  and  worship  of  all  the  gods  of  Babylonia ;  but  the 
priests  of  the  capital  became  much  displeased  at  receiving  no 
preference  over  those  of  the  other  cities.  They  were  soon 


CYRUS   THE  GREAT.  103 

ripe  for  conspiracy.  It  is  very  doubtful  that  Cyrus  could 
have  captured  Babylon  without  a  siege,  unless  there  had  been 
treachery  within.  The  most  impolitic  act  of  Nabonidus  was 
his  placing  of  the  statues  of  all  the  gods  in  the  temple  sacred 
to  Merodach  in  Babylon.  According  to  the  cuneiform  records 
of  the  time,  the  offended  god  and  his  priests  left  the  city. 
The  frightened  people  prayed  him  to  return.  He  granted 
their  prayer  conditionally.  He  would  tolerate  no  longer  the 
presence  of  an  impious  ruler.  "And  he  (Merodach)  selected 
a  king  to  conduct  after  his  heart  what  he  committed  to  his 
hands.  He  proclaimed  the  name  of  Cyrus,  king  of  the  city 
of  Auzan,  to  be  king  over  the  whole  country,  and  to  all 
people  he  declared  his  title.  .  .  .  To  his  own  city  of  Babylon, 
he  summoned  him  to  march."  The  clay  cylinders,  giving 
us  this  information,  contain  the  famous  proclamation  of 
Cyrus  the  Great.  It  establishes  the  fact  that  the  priesthood 
of  the  city  called  in  the  enemy.  The  resources  of  Babylonia 
had  been  exhausted  in  previous  wars  and  it  was  easy  to  fore- 
see the  approaching  downfall  of  its  power.  Nabonidus  was 
neither  a  soldier  nor  a  hero  ;  he  was  a  scholar  and  an  archaeo- 
logist. He  was  not  the  leader  needed  for  the  crisis. 

When  the  Persians  arrived  at  the  frontiers  of  Southern 
Babylonia,  Nabonidus  resorted  to  immense  sacrifices  to  the 
gods  to  avert  the  threatened  calamity  to  his  people.  The 
Persians,  however,  were  not  intimidated.  They  crossed  the 
Tigris  and  defeated  the  Babylonians,  under  the  command  of 
Belshazzar,  the  king's  son,  in  the  first  engagement.  There- 
upon the  inhabitants  of  the  city  of  Accad  surrendered  it  with- 
out a  struggle.  This  was  in  June,  B.C.  538.  A  few  days  later 
the  city  of  Babylon  opened  its  gates  to  Gobryas,  the  Persian 
general.  Nabonidus,  escaping,  fled  into  the  country,  and 
was  made  a  prisoner.  Three  months  afterwards  he  died,  and 
the  Persians  buried  him  with  all  the  honors  due  to  his  rank  ; 
for  a  whole  week  the  city  lamented  the  death  of  the  good 
Nabonidus.  At  this  time  Cyrus  had  arrived  in  Babylon.  He 
sent  back  to  every  city  its  tutelary  god,  that  Nabonidus  had 
brought  away.  "All  the  people  of  Babel  ...  of  Sumer  and 
of  Accad  .  .  .  the  nobles  and  the  priests  .  .  .  rejoiced  in 
their  new  master  and  changed  their  oath  of  fealty,  for  the 


104  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

god  (Merodach),  who  brings  the  dead  to  life  and  is  merciful 
in  all  misfortune  and  in  all  anguish,  has  accorded  all  his  favor 
to  him." 

The  Babylonians  were  not  alone  in  seeing  in  the  Persian 
a  messenger  of  God ;  still  more  the  Jews  were  disposed  to 
assign  him  this  character.  The  manner  in  which  Babylon 
had  succumbed  had  disappointed  their  hopes ;  .  .  .  the  city 
of  Nebuchadnezzar  had  not  been  wiped  from  the  face  of  the 
earth  like  that  of  Sennacherib  (Nineveh),  and  the  vengence 
of  Jerusalem  was  less  complete  than  that  of  Samaria.  But 
they  felt  that  the  deliverance  was  near,  and  one  of  their 
greatest  poets,  Isaiah,  announced  it  in  magnificent  words  : 

"  Sing,  O  ye  heavens  ;  for  the  LORD  hath  done  it:  shout, 
ye  lower  parts  of  the  earth :  break  forth  into  singing,  ye 
mountains,  O  forest,  and  every  tree  therein :  for  the  LORD 
hath  redeemed  Jacob,  and  glorified  himself  in  Israel.  Thus 
saith  the  LORD,  thy  redeemer,  and  he  that  formed  thee  from 
the  womb,  I  am  the  LORD  that  maketh  all  things ;  that 
stretcheth  forth  the  heavens  alone  ;  that  spreadeth  abroad  the 
earth  by  myself:  that  confirmeth  the  word  of  his  servant, 
and  performeth  the  counsel  of  his  messengers ;  that  saith  to 
Jerusalem,  Thou  shalt  be  inhabited ;  and  to  the  cities  of 
Judah,  Ye  shall  be  built,  and  I  will  raise  up  the  decayed 
places  thereof:  that  saith  to  the  deep,  Be  dry,  and  I  will  dry 
up  the  rivers :  that  saith  of  Cyrus,  He  is  my  shepherd,  and 
shall  perform  all  my  pleasure:  even  saying  to  Jerusalem, 
Thou  shalt  be  built ;  and  to  the  temple,  Thy  foundation  shall 
belaid."— G.  C.  C.  MASPERO. 


STATS  NOSttAL  SCHOOL, 


LEIF  ERICSON 

NORWEGIAN  DISCOVERER 


HE  discovery  of  a  continent  so  large  that 
it  may  be  said  to  have  doubled  the 
habitable  world,  is  an  event  so  grand  and 
interesting  that  nothing  parallel  to  it 
can  ever  occur  again  in  the  history  of 
mankind.  America  had  been  vaguely 
known  to  barbarous  tribes  of  Eastern 
Asia  for  thousands  of  years ;  but  it  is 
singular  that  it  should  have  been  visited  by  one  of  the  most 
enterprising  nations  of  Europe  five  centuries  before  the  time 
of  Columbus  without  awakening  the  attention  of  either 
statesman  or  philosopher.  The  account  of  this  discovery 
by  the  Northmen,  though  meagre,  is  distinct  and  consistent 
Its  authenticity  can  scarcely  be  disputed. 

Iceland  was  discovered  by  the  Northmen  between  86 1  and 
868  A.D.,  and  in  874  it  was  colonized  by  Ingolf,  the  Nor- 
wegian. A  few  years  later  all  the  habitable  parts  of  the  island 
had  been  completely  settled.  During  the  last  half  of  the  tenth 
century,  while  the  Norwegians  were  struggling  against  the 
introduction  of  Christianity,  restless  men  continued  to  seek 
new  homes  where  they  might  persist  in  the  practice  of  their 
Pagan  religion.  One  of  these,  Eric  the  Red,  wandered  to 
Iceland,  and  after  a  long  search  for  some  place  farther  west 
where  he  might  feel  himself  under  still  less  constraint,  he 
discovered  a  land  which  he  named  Greenland,  in  the  hope, 
perhaps,  of  making  others  believe  that  it  was  a  fruitful 
country.  This  was  in  the  year  983,  and  shortly  afterwards  he 
induced  a  number  of  Icelanders  to  colonize  Greenland. 

105 


106  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

A  son  of  Eric  the  Red,  named  Leif,  who  had  remained  in 
Norway  and  had  been  converted  to  Christianity,  came  to 
Greenland  1000  A.D.  A  number  of  monks,  whom  he  brought 
with  him,  began  at  once  to  baptize  the  people,  till  soon  there 
was  not  a  pagan  among  them.  The  life  in  Greenland  became 
somewhat  monotonous  to  the  young  voyager,  and  when  an 
opportunity  presented  itself  for  further  adventure,  he  quickly 
embraced  it.  An  Icelander,  Bjarne,  while  sailing  in  search  of 
his  father,  who  had  gone  on  a  trading  voyage  to  Greenland, 
was  carried  away  to  the  west  and  south,  till  he  reached  a  flat 
country,  so  closely  wooded  that  he  felt  certain  from  the 
description  he  had  heard  of  Greenland,  it  could  not  be  the 
land  of  which  he  was  in  search.  He,  therefore,  sailed  in  a 
different  direction,  and  on  arriving,  at  last,  at  Greenland,  told 
of  the  strange  land  he  had  seen.  On  hearing  this,  Leif  was 
at  once  so  impatient  to  visit  the  new  country  that,  buying 
Bjarne' s  ship,  he  manned  it  with  thirty-five  good  seamen 
and  set  sail. 

Leif  had  been  desirous  that  his  father  Eric,  who  was  still 
living,  should  accompany  them  and  command  the  expedition. 
Eric  objected,  that  he  was  too  old,  and  was  unable  to  endure 
hardships  as  formerly.  But  at  last  he  yielded  to  his  son's 
urgency  and  they  rode  from  home.  As  they  approached  the 
ship  Eric's  horse  stumbled  and  he  fell,  hurting  his  foot.  This 
accident  he  regarded  as  a  sign  from  Heaven  and  said  to  his 
son  :  "I  cannot  go  with  you.  It  is  not  my  destiny  to  dis- 
cover any  other  lands  than  this  in  which  we  live.  I  will 
follow  you  no  further."  Leif  then  took  command.  He  is 
described  as  a  large  and  strong  man,  of  imposing  looks,  and 
wise  and  moderate  in  everything. 

Following  the  course  which  Bjarne  had  pointed  out,  Leif 
reached  a  long  line  of  coast,  at  many  parts  of  which  he  and 
his  men  landed,  amongst  others,  the  coast  of  Labrador  and  of 
Nova  Scotia.  On  one  of  these  occasions  he  suddenly  missed 
Tyrker,  a  German.  Leif  sought  him  a  long  time  in  the 
woods,  and  at  length  found  him  gathering  bright  purple  and 
red  bunches  of  fruit,  which  the  man  seemed  overjoyed  to  have 
found.  It  was  some  time  before  Tyrker  could  make  Leif  and 
his  Norwegian  comrades  understand  that  he  had  found  grapes, 


ERICSON.  107 

of  which  his  native  countrymen  made  wine.  The  Northmen 
spent  the  winter  in  this  district,  and  Leif  named  the  country 
"  Vinland  the  Good."  Viuland  is  now  generally  conceded  to 
be  some  part  of  Massachusetts  or  Rhode  Island.  After%ruis- 
ing  along  the  coast  further  south,  during  the  succeeding  spring 
they  returned  to  Greenland.  After  they  had  come  in  sight  of 
its  glaciers,  some  of  the  crew  thought  that  Leif  was  steering 
the  vessel  out  of  its  course.  But  Leif  said,  ' '  I  see  something, 
but  cannot  tell  whether  it  is  a  ship  or  a  rock. ' '  When  others 
saw  that  it  was  a  rock,  Leif's  keen  sight  enabled  him  to  see 
men  on  the  rock.  Therefore  he  drew  closer ;  the  ship  was 
anchored,  and  a  boat  sent  out.  The  leader  of  the  men  on  the 
rock  proved  to  be  Thorir,  a  Norwegian,  who  was  now  glad  to 
be  taken,  with  his  fifteen  men,  on  board  Leif's  vessel.  After 
his  return  Leif  is  said  to  have  been  rich  and  respected,  and 
was  surnamed  the  Lucky. 

Leif  seems  to  have  remained  contented  with  the  exploits 
we  have  narrated,  and  died  in  Greenland  among  his  kindred. 
His  brother,  Thorstein,  attempted  a  voyage  to  Vinland,  but 
contrary  winds  and  stormy  seas  prevented  the  accomplishment 
of  the  object.  Another  brother,  Thorwald,  however,  made 
an  expedition  to  Vinland  and  settled  there.  But  within  a 
short  time  he  was  killed  in  a  fight  with  the  natives,  who 
swarmed  about  the  settlers  and  harassed  them  with  their 
arrows.  Thorwald  was  buried  there,  and  his  companions 
returned  to  Greenland. 

Finally  Thorfinn,  a  wealthy  Norwegian,  came  to  Brattah- 
lid,  the  colony  in  Greenland,  with  two  ships,  and  hearing  so 
much  talk  there  about  Vinland  the  Good,  resolved  to 
colonize  it  if  possible.  He  set  sail  in  1007  with  a  number  of 
colonists,  and  landed  in  a  country  that  corresponded  to  the 
description  given  by  former  navigators.  Wild  wheat  covered 
the  fields,  and  grapes  the  hills.  Numbers  of  the  natives 
visited  them  in  canoes,  carrying  on  a  system  of  barter  in  furs, 
peltries,  etc.,  extremely  profitable  to  the  Northmen.  In  a  few 
months  this  friendly  intercourse  ceased  and  skirmishes  ensued, 
in  which  several  of  the  settlers  were  killed.  Their  discour- 
agements so  increased  that  their  settlement  was  broken  up, 
and  the  colonists  returned  to  Greenland,  A.D.  ion.  During 


108  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

the  three  years'  residence  a  son  was  born  to  Thorfinn, 
probably  the  first  descendant  of  Europeans  ever  born  in 
America.  He  afterwards  became  a  person  of  great  distinc- 
tion, and  his  descendants  included  some  of  the  most  eminent 
persons  of  Northern  Europe.  Among  them  we  may  mention 
Thorwaldseu,  the  sculptor. 

This  was  the  last  authentic  attempt  at  a  settlement  in 
America.  Even  the  Greenland  colony,  after  an  existence  of 
nearly  five  hundred  years,  completely  disappeared  (1460  A.  D.), 
and  the  memory  of  it  was  almost  wholly  forgotten.  First  the 
"Black  Plague,"  which  had  raged  in  Europe  about  1350, 
reached  Greenland,  and  swept  away  nearly  all  the  people. 
The  few  who  had  escaped  the  frightful  disease  were  soon  after- 
ward cut  off  by  an  invasion  of  hostile  Esquimaux  from  the 
north.  After  a  period  of  oblivion  covering  four  centuries  and 
a  half,  the  western  world  was  again  restored  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe,  when,  in  1492,  Christopher 
Columbus  re-opened  the  ocean-road  to  its  vast  territories.  In 
the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  Hans  Egede,  with 
ships  and  means  furnished  by  Frederick  IV.,  of  Denmark, 
proceeded  to  Greenland  in  search  of  the  remains  of  the  long- 
forgotten  colony.  Since  that  time  the  Danes  have  held 
possession  of  the  country. 

It  remains  to  be  said  that  certain  supposed  monuments, 
attesting  the  visits  of  the  Northmen,  such  as  the  "  Dighton 
Rock  "  and  the  "  Old  Mill  "  at  Newport,  are  not  authentic, 
and  are  in  no  wise  necessary  to  prove  the  priority  of  tbe 
Northmen  in  the  discovery  of  America.  The  late  Prof. 
Horsford  believed  that  he  had  discovered  evidence  of  ancient 
Norwegian  settlements  on  the  Charles  River,  Massachusetts, 
but  the  proof  seemed  insufficient  to  establish  his  theory. 


PERICLES  was  not  only  the  greatest 
of  Athenian  statesmen,  but  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  characters  of 
antiquity.  The  age  of  Pericles  is 
memorable  as  the  most  brilliant 
period  of  Athenian  art,  culture  and 
dramatic  literature.  Among  his 
illustrious  contemporaries  were  the 
tragedians  JEschylus,  Euripides, 
Sophocles;  the  philosophers  De- 
mocritus  and  Socrates  ;  the  lyric 
poet  Pindar;  the  historians  Herod- 
otus and  Thucydides;  the  painter 
Polygnotus,  and  his  personal  friend 
the  sculptor  Phidias.  Amid  this 
constellation  the  genius  of  Pericles  still  shines  conspicuous. 

Pericles  was  the  son  of  Xanthippus,  who  defeated  the  Per- 
sians at  Mycale  in  479  B.C.  By  his  mother,  Agariste,  he  was 
connected  with  the  princely  line  of  Sicyon,  and  other  noble 
families.  The  precise  date  of  his  birth  is  unknown.  Pericles 
received  the  best  education  the  times  could  supply,  among 
his  teachers  being  Damon,  Zeno  of  Elea,  and  the  subtle  and 
profound  Anaxagoras.  Plutarch  declares  that  Anaxagoras 
gave  him  that  force  and  sublimity  of  sentiment  superior  to 
all  the  demagogues,  and  formed  him  to  that  admirable  dig- 
nity of  manners  and  unruffled  serenity  which  marked  his 
character  amid  all  the  storms  of  political  life,  and  won  for  him 
the  surname  of  Olympian  Zeus. 

Pericles  began  his  career  about  470  B.C.  as  leader  of  the 
democratic,  or  progressive  party,  when  Cimon  was  the  leader 
of  the  aristocratic,  or  conservative  party.  His  wealth,  his 
noble  birth,  his  powerful  friends,  his  grand  manner,  and  even 

109 


110  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

his  personal  resemblance  to  the  tyrant  Pisistratus,  might  have 
seemed  to  indicate  that  his  natural  place  was  on  the  other 
side;  while  the  blunt,  jovial,  rough  and  ready  Cimon,  though 
of  equally  noble  birth,  seemed  better  fitted  to  be  the  leader  of 
the  popular  party.  Yet  every  action  of  the  career  of  Pericles 
attests  the  sincerity  of  his  convictions  and  the  ardor  of  his 
patriotism.  ' '  Adorning  his  orations, ' '  says  Plutarch,  "with 
the  rich  colors  of  philosophy,  adding  the  loftiness  of  imagina- 
tion and  all -commanding  energy  with  which  philosophy  sup- 
plied him,  to  his  native  powers  of  genius,  he  far  excelled  all 
other  leaders."  Pericles  introduced  the  practice  of  paying 
the  citizens  liberally  from  public  moneys  for  the  performance 
of  public  duties,  thus  not  only  overcoming  the  lavish  outlay 
made  by  the  aristocratic  party  from  their  private  resources, 
but  enabling  poorer  citizens  to  give  their  time  to  matters  of 
general  concern.  About  461  B.C.  he  deprived  the  Areopagus 
of  the  judicial  power  which  had  rendered  it  a  formidable  in- 
strument of  the  aristocracy.  When  the  struggle  between  the 
two  parties  and  the  two  leaders  reached  a  crisis,  Pericles,  ac- 
cording to  the  remarkable  provision  of  the  Athenian  law, 
procured  the  ostracism  of  Cimon.  Yet  in  the  year  456  Per- 
icles proposed  a  decree  that  Citnon  should  be  recalled  from 
exile.  Pericles  was  now  the  acknowledged  and  undisputed 
master  of  Athens,  but  he  ruled,  not  by  terror  and  tyrannic 
usurpation,  but  in  accordance  with  law  and  by  his  matchless 
gift  of  persuasive  eloquence^ 

During  his  long  administration,  by  his  profuse  expendi- 
ture of  public  money,  he  made  Athens  the  most  beautiful  city 
of  Greece,  and  cultivated  the  taste  of  the  people  by  excellent 
models  of  sculpture  and  architecture.  The  Acropolis  was  cov- 
ered with  magnificent  temples  and  monuments  of  inimitable 
beauty;  the  Parthenon  was  built  and  adorned  with  the  sculp- 
tures of  Phidias.  In  this  course  he  claimed  to  be  fulfilling 
the  desire  of  his  fellow-citizens,  for,  as  he  says  in  one  of  his 
orations,  "  We  Athenians  are  lovers  of  the  beautiful. "  Pur- 
suing the  policy  inaugurated  by  the  far-sighted  Themistocles, 
Pericles  urged  the  importance  of  a  navy,  and  rendered  the 
maritime  power  of  Athens  superior  to  that  of  any  other  State. 
He  opposed  ambitious  schemes  of  foreign  conquest,  and  pre- 


PERICLES.  Ill 

ferred  to  win  power  by  peaceful  methods.  Yet  he  conquered 
the  wealthy  island  of  Samos  in  440  B.C.,  and  he  planted  colo- 
nies at  Chalcis  and  Sinope.  His  administration  rendered 
Athens  an  imperial  State,  with  numerous  allies  and  colonies, 
partly  free  and  partly  tributary.  With  the  wealth  which 
flowed  freely  into  the  treasury  of  Athens,  Pericles  fortified  as 
well  as  beautified  his  native  city.  Under  his  rule  was  built 
the  Long  Walls,  which,  connecting  Athens  with  the  Piraeus, 
converted  the  capital  and  its  seaport  into  one  vast  fortress. 

The  wonderful  growth  of  the  grand  naval  empire  of 
Athens  roused  into  bitterness  the  jealousy  of  Sparta,  which 
claimed  the  military  leadership  of  Greece.  In  432  B.C.  the 
Spartans  organized  a  league  of  Hellenic  States  against  the 
Athenians,  and  all  Greece  became  involved  in  the  great  Pe- 
loponnesian  war.  The  Spartans  were  confessedly  superior  on 
land,  and  thought  to  end  the  war  by  invading  Attica,  but 
Pericles  was  master  of  the  sea.  Even  when  Attica  was  rav- 
aged by  the  enemy,  he  remained  on  the  defensive.  By  his 
advice  and  direction  the  country  people  carried  their  movable 
property,  partly  to  adjacent  islands  and  partly  to  the  space  en- 
closed by  the  Long  Walls.  /  At  the  end  of  the  first  campaign 
Pericles  pronounced  on  those  who  had  fallen  in  battle  a 
funeral  oration  which,  as  reported  by  Thucydides,  is  one  of 
the  noblest  monuments  of  Athenian  glory.  This  speech, 
perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of  all  compositions  of  antiquity 
— the  full  transfusion  of  which  into  a  modern  language  is  an 
impossibility — exhibits  a  more  complete  view  of  the  intellect- 
ual power  and  moral  character  of  Pericles  than  all  that  the 
historians  have  said  of  him. 

In  the  second  campaign  Pericles  led  in  person  a  powerful 
fleet  against  the  Peloponnesus,  and  ravaged  its  coast,  that  the 
Lacedaemonians  might  have  the  evils  of  war  brought  home  to 
them.  In  430  B.C.  a  great  plague  broke  out  in  Athens,  un- 
doubtedly due  to  the  overcrowding  of  the  country  people  in 
temporary  habitations  within  the  walls,  and  the  privations 
caused  by  the  raids  of  the  Spartans.  The  fickle  and  impa- 
tient populace  charged  their  misfortunes  on  Pericles,  fined 
him  and  deprived  him  of  command.  But  no  other  was  found 
equal  to  the  task,  and  Pericles,  who  had  submitted  gracefully 


112  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

to  the  will  of  the  people,  was  again  elected  general  and  re- 
stored to  all  his  former  power.  He  died  in  the  autumn  of 
429  B.C.,  during  a  second  outbreak  of  the  pestilence.  He  had 
lived  many  years  in  conjugal  relatibns  with  the  highly  gifted 
and  beautiful  Aspasia,  but  they  were  not  legally  married  be- 
cause she  was  a  foreigner.  His  tender  regard  for  the  welfare 
and  life  of  every  Athenian  is  attested  by  many  recorded  say- 
ings. On  his  death-bed,  when  his  friends  were  recounting 
his  claims  to  public  gratitude,  he  roused  himself  to  remind 
them  of  his  best  title  to  remembrance:  "  No  Athenian,"  he 
said,  "  ever  put  on  black  through  me." 

The  abundance  of  men  of  genius  of  the  first  order  in  the 
little  States  of  Greece  at  this  time,  conferred  on  the  Age  of 
Pericles  a  brilliance  which  has  made  it  conspicuous  in  the 
history  of  the  world.  Pericles  was  not  inferior  to  any  of  them 
in  versatile  genius  or  nobility  of  character.  Emerson  says: 
"The  best  heads  that  ever  existed,  Pericles,  Plato,  Julius 
Caesar,  Shakespeare,  Goethe  and  Milton,  were  well  read,  uni- 
versally educated  men."  His  philosophy  teaches  that  life  is 
to  be  enjoyed,  death  not  to  be  feared.  Though  a  leader  of 
the  democratic  party,  he  did  not  believe  in  the  natural  equality 
of  men;  and  although  the  head  of  the  Athenian  State,  he  was 
suspected  of  rejecting  much  of  the  traditional  religion.  He 
wielded  the  powers  of  his  majestic  intelligence  and  the  stores 
of  his  spacious  imagination  with  consummate  ease  and  mastery. 
In  the  perfect  harmony  and  completeness  of  nature,  and  in  the 
classic  calm  which  is  the  fruit  of  it,  Pericles  is  the  type  of  the 
ideal  spirit,  not  of  his  own  age  only,  but  of  antiquity. 

PERICLES'  ORATION. 

THE  TRUE  GLORY  ov  ATHENS. 

(In  the  year  430  B.C.,  Pericles  pronounced  the  Funeral  Oration  of  those 
Athenians  who  had  fallen  in  the  first  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  War.  We 
present  hera  the  main  part  of  this  celebrated  oration). 

I  will  speak  first  of  our  ancestors,  for  it  is  right  and  becom- 
ing that  now,  when  we  are  lamenting  the  dead,  a  tribute 
should  be  paid  to  their  memory.  There  has  never  been  a 
time  when  they  did  not  inhabit  this  land,  which,  by  their 
valor,  they  have  handed  down  from  generation  to  generation, 


PERICLES.  113 

and  we  have  received  from  them  a  free  State.  But  if  they 
were  worthy  of  praise,  still  more  were  our  fathers,  who  added 
to  their  inheritance,  and  after  many  a  struggle  transmitted  to 
us,  their  sons,  this  great  empire.  Of  the  military  exploits  by 
which  our  various  possessions  were  acquired,  or  of  the  energy 
with  which  we  or  our  fathers  drove  back  the  tide  of  war, 
Hellenic  or  Barbarian,  I  will  not  speak,  for  the  tale  would  be 
long  and  is  familiar  to  you.  But  before  I  praise  the  dead,  I 
should  like  to  point  out  by  what  principles  of  action  we  rose 
to  power,  and  under  what  institutions  and  through  what  man- 
ner of  life  our  empire  became  great. 

Our  form  of  government  does  not  enter  into  rivalry  with 
the  institutions  of  others.  We  do  not  copy  from  our  neighbors, 
but  are  an  example  to  them.  It  is  true  that  we  are  called  a 
democracy,  for  the  administration  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
many,  and  not  of  the  few.  But  while  the  law  secures  equal 
justice  to  all  alike  in  their  private  disputes,  the  claim  of  ex- 
cellence is  also  recognized;  and  when  a  citizen  is  in  any  way 
distinguished  he  is  promoted  to  the  public  service,  not  as  a 
matter  of  privilege,  but  as  the  reward  of  merit.  Neither  is 
poverty  a  bar;  but  a  man  may  benefit  his  country,  whatever 
be  the  obscurity  of  his  condition.  There  is  no  exclusiveness 
in  our  public  life,  and  in  our  private  intercourse  we  are  not 
suspicious  of  one  another,  nor  angry  with  our  neighbor  if  he 
does  what  he  likes;  we  do  not  put  on  sour  looks  at  him 
which,  though  harmless,  are  not  pleasant.  While  we  are 
thus  unconstrained  in  our  private  intercourse,  a  spirit  of  rev- 
erence pervades  our  public  acts;  we  are  prevented  from  doing 
wrong  by  respect  for  authority  and  for  the  laws,  having  an 
especial  regard  to  those  which  are  ordained  for  the  protection 
of  the  injured,  as  well  as  to  those  unwritten  laws  which  bring 
upon  the  transgressor  of  them  the  reprobation  of  the  general 
sentiment. 

And  we  have  not  forgotten  to  provide  for  our  weary 
spirits  many  relaxations  from  toil.  We  have  regular  games 
and  festivals  throughout  the  year;  at  home  the  style  of  our 
life  is  refined,  and  the  delight  which  we  daily  feel  in  all  these 
things  helps  to  banish  melancholy.  Because  of  the  greatness 
of  our  city  the  fruits  of  the  whole  earth  flow  in  upon  us,  so 
8 


114  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

that  we  enjoy  the  goods  of  other  countries  as  freely  as  of  our 
own. 

Then,  again,  our  military  training  is,  in  many  respects, 
superior  to  that  of  the  Spartans.  Our  city  is  thrown  open  to 
the  world,  and  we  never  expel  a  foreigner  or  prevent  him 
from  seeing  or  learning  anything  of  which  the  secret,  if  re- 
vealed to  an  enemy,  might  profit  him.  We  rely  not  upon 
management  or  trickery,  but  upon  our  own  hearts  and  hands. 
And  in  the  matter  of  education,  whereas  they  from  early 
youth  are  always  undergoing  laborious  exercises  which  are  to 
make  them  brave,  we  live  at  ease,  and  yet  are  equally  ready 
to  face  the  perils  which  they  face.  And  here  is  the  proof. 
The  Lacedaemonians  come  into  Attica  not  by  themselves,  but 
with  their  whole  confederacy  following;  but  we  Athenians  go 
alone  into  a  neighbor's  country;  and  although  our  opponents 
are  fighting  for  their  homes  and  we  on  a  foreign  soil,  we  have 
seldom  any  difficulty  in  overcoming  them.  Our  enemies  have 
never  yet  felt  our  united  strength.  The  care  of  a  navy  di- 
vides our  attention,  and  on  land  we  are  obliged  to  send  our 
own  citizens  everywhere.  But  they,  if  they  meet  and  defeat 
a  part  of  our  army,  are  as  proud  as  if  they  had  routed  us  all ; 
and  when  defeated,  they  pretend  to  have  been  vanquished  by 
us  all. 

If,  then,  we  prefer  to  meet  danger  with  a  light  heart,  but 
without  laborious  training,  and  with  a  courage  which  is 
gained  by  habit  and  not  enforced  by  law,  are  we  not  greatly 
the  gamers  ?  Since  we  do  not  anticipate  the  pain,  although, 
when  the  hour  comes,  we  can  be  as  brave  as  those  who  never 
allow  themselves  to  rest  Thus,  too,  our  city  is  equally  ad- 
mirable in  peace  and  in  war.  For  we  are  lovers  of  the  beau- 
tiful, yet  simple  in  our  tastes,  and  we  cultivate  the  mind  with- 
out loss  of  manliness.  Wealth  we  employ,  not  for  talk  and 
ostentation,  but  when  there  is  a  real  use  for  it.  To  avow 
poverty  with  us  is  no  disgrace;  the  true  disgrace  is  in  doing 
nothing  to  avoid  it.  An  Athenian  citizen  does  not  neglect 
the  State  because  he  takes  care  of  his  own  household;  and 
even  those  of  us  who  are  engaged  in  business  have  a  very  fair 
idea  of  politics.  We  alone  regard  a  man  who  takes  no  in- 
terest in  public  affairs  not  as  a  harmless,  but  as  a  useless 


PERICLES.  115 

character;  and  if  but  few  of  us  are  originators,  we  are  all 
sound  judges  of  a  policy.  The  great  impediment  to  action  is, 
in  our  opinion,  not  discussion,  but  the  want  of  that  know- 
ledge which  is  gained  by  discussion  preparatory  to  action. 
For  we  have  a  peculiar  power  of  thinking  before  we  act  and 
of  acting,  too;  whereas,  other  men  are  courageous  from  ig- 
norance, but  hesitate  upon  reflection.  And  they  are  surely 
to  be  esteemed  the  bravest  spirits  who,  having  the  clearest 
sense,  both  of  the  pains  and  pleasures  of  life,  do  not  on  that 
account  shrink  from  danger. 

Again,  in  our  relation  to  our  friends  we  are  unlike  others; 
we  make  friends  by  conferring,  not  by  receiving  favors. 
Now,  he  who  confers  a  favor  is  the  firmer  friend,  because  he 
would  fain  by  kindness  keep  alive  the  memory  of  an  obliga- 
tion; but  the  recipient  is  colder  in  his  feelings,  because  he 
knows  that  in  requiting  another's  generosity  he  will  not  be 
winning  gratitude,  but  only  paying  a  debt.  We  alone  do 
good  to  our  neighbors,  not  upon  a  calculation  of  interest,  but 
in  the  confidence  of  freedom  and  in  a  frank  and  fearless  spirit. 
To  sum  up:  I  say  that  Athens  is  the  school  of  Hellas,  and 
that  the  individual  Athenian,  in  his  own  person,  seems  to 
have  the  power  of  adapting  himself  to  the  most  varied  forms 
of  action  with  the  utmost  versatility  and  grace.  This  is  no 
passing  and  idle  word,  but  truth  and  fact;  and  the  assertion 
is  verified  by  the  position  to  which  these  qualities  have  raised 
the  State.  For  in  the  hour  of  trial  Athens,  alone  among  her 
contemporaries,  is  superior  to  her  report.  No  enemy  who 
comes  against  her  is  indignant  at  the  reverses  which  he  sus- 
tains at  the  hands  of  such  a  city;  no  subject  complains  that 
his  masters  are  unworthy  of  him.  And  we  shall  assuredly 
not  be  without  witnesses;  there  are  mighty  monuments  of 
our  power  which  will  make  us  the  wonder  of  this  and  of  suc- 
ceeding ages;  we  shall  not  need  the  praises  of  Homer  or  of 
any  other  panegyrist  whose  poetry  may  please  for  the  moment, 
although  his  representation  of  the  facts  will  not  bear  the  light 
of  day.  For  we  have  compelled  every  land  and  every  sea  to 
open  a  path  for  our  valor,  and  have  everywhere  planted 
eternal  memorials  of  our  friendship  and  of  our  enmity. 
Such  is  the  city  for  whose  sake  these  men  nobly  fought  and 


116  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

died;  they  could  not  bear  the  thought  that  she  might  be 
taken  from  them;  and  every  one  of  us  who  survive  should 
gladly  toil  in  her  behalf. 

I  have  dwelt  upon  the  greatness  of  Athens  because  I  want 
to  show  you  that  we  are  contending  for  a  higher  prize  than 
those  who  enjoy  none  of  these  privileges,  and  to  establish  by 
manifest  proof  the  merit  of  these  men  whom  I  am  now  com- 
memorating. Their  loftiest  praise  has  been  already  spoken. 
For  in  magnifying  the  city  I  have  magnified  them,  and  men 
like  them,  whose  virtues  made  her  glorious.  And  of  how 
few  Hellenes  can  it  be  said  as  of  them,  that  their  deeds,  when 
weighed  in  the  balance,  have  been  found  equal  to  their  fame! 
Methinks  that  a  death  such  as  theirs  gives  the  true  measure 
of  a  man's  worth;  it  may  be  the  first  revelation  of  his  virtues, 
but  is  at  any  rate  their  final  seal.  For  even  those  who  come 
short  in  other  ways  may  justly  plead  the  valor  with  which 
they  have  fought  for  their  country.  They  have  blotted  out 
the  evil  with  the  good,  and  have  benefited  the  State  more  by 
their  public  services  than  they  have  injured  her  by  their  pri- 
vate actions.  None  of  these  men  were  enervated  by  wealth 
or  hesitated  to  resign  the  pleasures  of  life;  none  of  them  put 
off  the  evil  day  in  the  hope,  natural  to  poverty,  that  a  man, 
though  poor,  may  one  day  become  rich.  But,  deeming  that 
the  punishment  of  their  enemies  was  sweeter  than  any  of 
these  things,  and  that  they  could  fall  in  no  nobler  cause,  they 
determined  at  the  hazard  of  their  lives  to  be  honorably 
avenged,  and  to  leave  the  rest.  They  resigned  to  hope  their 
unknown  chance  of  happiness;  but  in  the  face  of  death  they 
resolved  to  rely  upon  themselves  alone.  And  when  the  mo- 
ment came  they  were  resolved  to  resist  and  suffer  rather  than 
to  fly  and  save  their  lives.  They  shrank  from  the  word  of 
dishonor,  but  on  the  battle-field  their  feet  stood  fast,  and  in 
an  instant,  at  the  height  of  their  fortune,  they  passed  away 
from  the  scene,  not  of  their  fear,  but  of  their  glory. 

Such  was  the  end  of  these  men.  They  were  worthy  of 
Athens,  and  the  living  need  not  desire  to  have  a  more  heroic 
spirit,  although  they  may  pray  for  a  less  fatal  issue.  The 
value  of  such  a  spirit  is  not  to  be  expressed  in  words.  Any 
one  can  discourse  to  you  forever  about  the  advantages  of  a 


PERICLES.  117 

brave  defense  which  you  know  already.  But  instead  of  list- 
ening to  him  I  would  have  you,  day  by  day,  fix  your  eyes 
upon  the  greatness  of  Athens,  until  you  become  filled  with 
love  of  her;  and  when  you  are  impressed  by  the  spectacle  of 
her  glory,  reflect  that  this  empire  has  been  acquired  by  men 
who  knew  their  duty  and  had  the  courage  to  doit;  who,  in 
the  hour  of  conflict,  had  the  fear  of  dishonor  always  present 
to  them,  and  who,  if  ever  they  failed  in  an  enterprise,  would 
not  allow  their  virtues  to  be  lost  to  their  country,  but  freely 
gave  their  lives  to  her  as  the  fairest  offering  which  they  could 
present  at  her  feast.  The  sacrifice  which  they  collectively 
made  was  individually  repaid  to  them,  for  they  received  again, 
each  one  for  himself,  a  praise  which  grows  not  old  and  the 
noblest  of  all  sepulchres — I  speak  not  of  that  in  which  their 
remains  are  laid,  but  of  that  in  which  their  glory  survives — 
and  is  proclaimed  always  and  on  every  fitting  occasion,  both 
in  word  and  deed.  For  the  whole  earth  is  the  sepulchre  of 
famous  men.  Not  only  are  they  commemorated  by  columns 
and  inscriptions  in  their  own  country,  but  in  foreign  lands 
there  dwells  also  an  unwritten  memorial  of  them,  graven  not 
on  stone,  but  in  the  hearts  of  men.  Make  them  your  exam- 
ples, and,  esteeming  courage  to  be  freedom  and  freedom  to  be 
happiness,  do  not  weigh  too  nicely  the  perils  of  war.  To  a 
man  of  spirit  cowardice  and  disaster  coming  together  are  far 
more  bitter  than  death,  striking  him  unperceived  at  a  time 
when  he  is  full  of  courage  and  animated  by  the  general  hope. 
— Translated  by  PROF.  B.  JowETT. 

PERICLES  AND  ASPASIA. 

This  was  the  ruler  of  the  land, 

When  Athens  was  the  land  of  fame  ; 

This  was  the  light  that  led  the  band, 
When  each  was  like  a  living  flame ; 

The  centre  of  earth's  noblest  ring, 

Of  more  than  men,  the  more  than  king. 

Yet  not  by  fetter,  nor  by  spear, 

His  sovereignty  was  held,  or  won  ; 
Feared,  but  alone  as  freemen  fear ; 

I,oved,  but  as  freemen  love,  alone ; 


Il8  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

He  waved  the  sceptre  o'er  his  kind 
By  nature's  first  great  title — mind. 

Resistless  words  were  on  his  tongue ; 

Then  eloquence  first  flashed  below ; 
Full-armed,  to  life  the  portent  sprung, 

Minerva,  from  the  thunderous  brow  ; 
And  his  the  sole,  the  sacred  hand 
That  shook  her  aegis  o'er  the  land. 

Then,  throned,  immortal,  by  his  side, 
A  woman  sits,  with  eye  sublime, — 

Aspasia, — all  his  spirit's  bride: 

But  if  their  solemn  love  were  crime, 

Pity  the  beauty  and  the  sage, 

Their  crime  was  in  that  darkened  age. 

He  perished,  but  his  wreath  was  won ; 

He  perished  in  his  height  of  fame ; 
Then  sank  the  cloud  on  Athens'  sun, 

Yet  still  she  conquered  in  his  name. 
Filled  with  his  soul,  she  could  not  die : 
Her  conquest  was  posterity. 

WALTER  SAVAGE  L,ANDOR. 


v 


"THE  Greek  national  mind,"  says 
Ltibke,  ' '  unfolded  in  all  its  splendor 
immediately  after  the  Persian  wars. 
In  political  life,  as  well  as  in  art  and 
science,  the  bands  were  loosened,  and 
released  from  its  former  restraint  the 
Greek  mind  developed  with  perfect 
freedom  and  beauty.  Athens  .  .  . 
was  the  central  point  of  this  develop- 
ment. .  .  .  All  that  was  achieved  in 
the  short  space  of  one  generation 
(from  460  B.C.  to  about  430)  belongs, 
even  in  the  poor  mutilated  remains 
which  have  come  down  to  us,  to  the 
most  splendid  possessions  of  the  human  mind. ' ' 

It  was  at  this  propitious  period,  so  favorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  genius,  that  Phidias,  the  greatest  sculptor  of  Greece, 
achieved  his  artistic  triumphs.  He  was  the  son  of  Charmides, 
and  was  born  at  Athens  about  500  B.C.  He  made  his  studies 
in  the  plastic  art  under  Hegias  of  Athens  and  Ageladas  of 
Argos.  His  first  notable  opportunities  came  when  the  Athe- 
nians, under  Cimon,  began  the  magnificent  restoration  of 
their  city,  which  had  been  destroyed  by  the  Persians.  A 
colossal  statue  of  Athena  Promachos  (on  the  Acropolis), 
another  of  Athena,  at  Platsea,  and  a  group  commemorating 
the  victory  of  Marathon,  at  Delphi,  were  his  most  famous 
contributions,  during  that  period,  to  the  artistic  manifestation 
of  Greece  triumphant. 

The  administration  of  Pericles,  who   succeeded   Cimon, 
was  marked  by  an  even  more  extraordinary  and  brilliant 

119 


120  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

artistic  development,  and  under  his  patronage  Phidias,  too, 
reached  the  maturity  of  his  powers.  Beside  being  commis- 
sioned to  execute  the  more  important  statuary  to  be  erected, 
he  was  entrusted  with  the  general  superintendence  of  the 
artistic  improvements  planned  for  the  city.  The  two  most 
famous  monuments  of  art  thus  carried  out  under  his  direc- 
tions were  the  Propylsea  and  the  Parthenon.  His  huge  gold 
and  ivory  figure  of  Athena  (438  B.C.)*  in  the  latter  building 
has  completely  disappeared,  but  the  sculptured  ornaments  of 
the  building,  f  directly  "  inspired  "  by  him,  give  evidence  of 
his  great  genius,  even  though  they  may  not — or  at  least  not 
all — be  his  own  handiwork. 

But  his  most  famous  statue  is  the  colossal  one  of  Zeus,  at 
Olympia,  executed  in  ivory  and  gold  like  the  Athena,  the 
embodiment  of  the  Homeric  Zeus.  Although  the  usual 
practice  of  the  Greeks  was  to  place  the  image  of  a  deity  in 
the  sanctuary  or  inner  chamber  of  his  temple,  this  majestic 
statue,  nearly  sixty  feet  high,  was  erected  in  the  outer  room, 
directly  facing  the  entrance.  On  ordinary  occasions  it  was 
concealed  with  an  elaborate  curtain,  but  on  the  great  festi- 
vals it  was  unveiled.  Zeus  was  represented  seated  on  a  mag- 
nificent throne,  crowned  with  a  wreath  of  olive,  holding  in 
his  right  hand  a  statue  of  Victory,  formed  of  ivory  and  gold, 
and  supporting  with  his  left  hand  his  sceptre,  highly  orna- 
mental and  surmounted  with  an  eagle.  His  sandals  and  robe 
were  of  gold,  the  latter  being  decorated  with  figures  of 
animals  and  flowers,  especially  lillies.  The  throne  was  formed 
of  ivory  and  ebony,  inlaid  with  gold,  set  with  precious  stones, 
and  sculptured  with  graceful  figures.  The  fronts  of  the  steps 
bore  bas-reliefs  of  classic  myths,  and  the  foot-stool  rested  on 
four  lions  couchant.  In  this  great  work  presented  the  Greek 
ideal  of  the  Supreme  Ruler  of  the  world.  The  sculptor  him- 
self said  he  found  his  model  in  the  famous  lines  of  Homer  in 
the  First  Book  of  the  Iliad  :— 

*  We  are  told  that  the  nude  parts  of  the  statue  were  of  ivory,  gems 
formed  the  eyes,  and  gold  was  used  for  the  drapery,  arms  and  ornaments. 

t  Fragments  of  the  metopes,  frieze  and  pediments  were  taken  to  Eng- 
land by  Lord  Elgin,  and  are  housed  in  the  British  Museum,  being  known  as 
the  "Elgin  Marbles." 


PHIDIAS.  121 

"So  did  lie  speak,  and,  at  pausing,  he  signed  with  his  shadowy 

eyebrows, 

And  the  ambrosial  curls  from  the  head  everlasting  were  shaken, 
And  at  the  nod  of  the  King  deep  trembled  the  lofty  Olympus. ' ' 

The  sojourn  of  Phidias  in  Olympia  has  usually  been  re- 
garded as  subsequent  to  the  production  of  the  Athena  Par- 
thenos,  but  Loeschke  and  other  more  recent  writers  place  his 
activity  in  HHs  before  the  time  of  the  erection  of  the  Parthe- 
non statue  (i.  <?.,  soon  after  460  B.C.). 

The  famous  Athena,  it  appears,  furnished  the  pretext  for 
his  overthrow.  The  intensity  of  party  feeling  against  Pericles 
extended  to  him  and  others  who  enjoyed  that  ruler's  favor. 
Phidias  was  accused  of  having  appropriated  part  of  the  gold 
intended  for  the  Athena  Parthenos,  but  cleared  himself  by 
taking  off  the  gold  portions  of  the  statue,  which  were  remov- 
able, and  weighing  them.  Nevertheless,  on  the  further 
charge  of  impiety  in  having  introduced  himself  and  Pericles 
among  the  battling  Greeks  on  the  shield  of  the  goddess,  he 
was  thrown  into  prison,  where  he  died  about  432  B.C. 

Phidias  has  been  called  the  greatest  of  all  sculptors,  not 
only  on  account  of  his  consummate  technical  and  artistic 
ability,  but  also  by  reason  of  the  grandeur  and  nobility  of  his 
conceptions.  In  his  figures  of  the  gods  he  created  types  that 
were  sublime  in  their  perfect  embodiment  of  the  highest 
ideas  of  the  Greek  mind.  It  was  the  verdict  of  the  ancients 
that  he  alone  had  "seen  the  true  likeness  of  the  gods,  and 
rendered  them  visible. ' '  In  his  work,  Greek  art  attained  the 
height  of  spiritual  beauty,  and  produced,  it  is  believed,  the 
noblest  specimens  of  sculpture  in  the  world. 


DARIUS,  the  first  of  that  name  who  became 
King  of  Persia}  was  the  son  of  Hystaspes, 
a  Persian  nobleman  of  the  royal  family  of 
the  Achalmenides.  According  to  the  great 
cuneiform  inscription  of  King  Darius, 
sculptured  on  the  mountain-wall  at  Behis- 
tun,  his  father,  Hystaspes,  was  entrusted  with  the  satrapy  of 
Hyrcania  and  Parthia  by  King  Cambyses.  He  gives  the 
genealogy  of  his  own  family  thus  : 

I,  Achaemenes. 


3' 

4, 

2, 

Teispes. 

1 
Cyrus. 

Cambyses. 

7, 
8, 

1 
Ariarames. 

1 
Arsanes. 

5,  Cyrus  the  Great 


(Hystaspes.) 


i  i 

6,   Cambyses.  9,  Darius. 

Immediately  after  Darius  assumed  the  sceptre  of  Persia 
(B.C.  521),  Babylon  revolted  under  Nidintabel,  a  pretender, 
who  called  himself  ' '  Nebuchadnezzar  the  son  of  Nabonidus, ' ' 
the  last  Babylonian  king.  Darius  overthrew  the  pretender  in 
two  battles  at  Zazan  and  laid  siege  to  the  city.  It  was  taken 
June  B.C.  519  after  a  blockade  of  nearly  two  years,  the  Per- 
sians penetrating  into  the  city  during  a  festival,  by  marching 
along  the  dry  channel  of  the  Euphrates.  Nidintabel  was 
captured  and  executed.  It  is  this  siege  and  capture  which 
Herodotus  transfers  to  the  age  of  Cyrus. 

Legends  soon  gathered  around  the  events  attending  the 


122 


DARIUS,   THE  PERSIAN  DESPOT.  123 

capture  of  Babylon.  A  favorite  story  relates  that  Darius, 
on  arriving  at  Babylon,  found  that  the  inhabitants  had  cut 
canals,  filled  their  magazines  and  granaries.  In  the  course  of 
twenty  months  the  Persians  were  no  further  advanced  than 
on  the  first  day.  At  last,  when  they  were  utterly  disheartened, 
Zopyrus,  a  noble  Persian,  sacrificed  himself  to  assure  them 
the  victory.  Cutting  off  his  nose  and  ears,  he  fled  into  the 
city  and  pretended  to  be  a  fugitive  from  the  cruelty  of  the 
Persian  King.  Being  entrusted  with  a  command,  he  led  some 
sorties  of  the  besieged  and  gained  some  advantages.  When 
he  had  thus  sufficiently  won  the  confidence  of  the  Babylon- 
ians to  be  placed  in  charge  of  the  walls,  he  opened  two 
of  the  gates  for  the  entrance  of  his  countrymen,  who  thus 
became  masters  of  the  city.  By  the  order  of  the  king  three 
thousand  Babylonians  were  impaled,  the  walls  were  leveled 
to  the  ground,  and  the  city  repeopled  with  foreign  colonists. 
All  antiquity  applauded  the  self-sacrificing  treachery  of  Zopy- 
rus, on  the  word  of  Herodotus. 

Parthia  and  Hyrcania  revolted  under  the  lead  of  a  cer- 
tain Phraortes,  and  Darius  had  great  difficulty  in  suppress- 
ing the  rebellion.  Suddenly  quitting  Babylon,  he  pene- 
trated Media,  and  threw  himself  fiercely  upon  the  enemy. 
Phraortes  fled  towards  the  mountains  in  the  North,  but  was 
afterwards  captured.  His  chastisement  was  atrocious,  his 
nose  and  ears  and  tongue  were  cut  off;  his  eyes  were  torn 
from  their  sockets  ;  finally  he  was  impaled.  Of  his  principal 
partisans,  some  were  impaled,  and  others  beheaded.  But  it 
seems  that  one  war  engendered  another  :  the  ephemeral  success 
of  a  second  false  Bardes  evoked  a  second  false  Nebuchadnez- 
zar. Darius  had  hardly  left  Babylon  when  an  Armenian, 
Aracha,  gave  himself  out  as  the  son  of  Nabonidus.  A  gen- 
eral of  Darius,  however,  vanquished  and  executed  him  (B.C. 


Having  vanquished  all  these  rebels,  Darius  at  last  had  op- 
portunity to  exhibit  to  the  world  his  remarkable  genius  for 
organization.  For  the  first  time  in  history  centralization 
became  a  political  fact.  Hitherto  the  Great  King  had  not 
concerned  himself  to  suppress  the  local  dynasties,  but  rather 
encouraged  the  people  to  maintain  their  language,  customs, 


124  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

religion,  laws,  and  all  their  particular  constitutions.  The 
Jews  had  permission  to  finish  the  construction  of  their  Tem- 
ple ;  the  Greeks  of  Asia  retained  their  various  governments, 
Phoenicia  retained  its  kings  and  judges,  Egypt  its  hereditary 
monarchs.  But  above  these  local  authorities  there  was  a 
power  unique,  superior  to  all  and  everywhere  the  same.  The 
King  was  the  source  of  all  authority.  "It  is  true  that  a 
council,  consisting  of  seven  nobles,  and  a  hereditary  subno- 
bility,  sat  without  the  will  of  the  king  ;  but  this  relic  of  a 
period  when  Persia  had  not  yet  become  an  empire  had 
little  power  or  influence  against  the  bureaucracy,  the  mem- 
bers of  which  owed  their  offices  to  an  irresponsible  despot. 
The  centralization  of  Persia  stands  in  marked  contrast  to  the 
decentralization  of  Greece." 

The  Persian  empire  was  divided  into  twenty-three  satra- 
pies. Each  satrap  was  responsible  for  a  fixed  tribute,  but 
beyond  that  he  enjoyed  the  full  power  of  a  king.  It  was  of 
course  the  interest  of  the  crown  to  prevent  the  provinces 
from  being  exhausted.  The  danger  to  the  government  caused 
by  the  power  of  the  satrap  and  his  distance  from  the  central 
authority  was  diminished  in  several  ways.  Royal  scribes 
were  employed  to  send  reports  of  the  satraps  and  of  their 
actions  to  the  king.  At  irregular  times  an  officer  of  the 
court  came  to  inspect  the  province.  It  seems  also  that  the 
important  fortresses  were  always  entrusted  to  an  independent 
officer.  But  on  the  frontiers  of  the  empire  necessarily  the 
offices  of  satrap  and  commander  were  often  united  in  the 
one  person  for  the  purpose  of  prompt  suppression  of  popular 
disturbances.  These  three  rivals,  satrap,  scribe,  general,  bal- 
anced and  held  each  other  in  check  so  as  to  make  a  revolt  of 
either  if  not  impossible,  at  least  difficult. 

Despite  some  defects  of  detail,  the  fiscal  system  introduced 
by  Darius  conduced  to  the  stability  of  the  government.  No 
more  was  the  death  of  each  king  the  signal  for  revolts  in  the 
provinces,  which  occupied  the  greater  part  of  the  reign  of 
the  successor  in  suppressing.  Darius  not  only  had  the  glory 
of  organizing  the  Persian  empire ;  he  invented  a  form  of 
government  which  served  thereafter  as  a  model  for  the  great 
Oriental  States.  His  renown  as  an  administrator  has  even 


DARIUS,    THE   PERSIAN   DESPOT. 


125 


overshadowed  his  military  fame.  By  reason  of  its  previous 
conquests,  Persia  had  now  issue  for  its  energies  only  in  two 
directions,  on  the  east  into  India,  on  the  west  into  Greece. 

About  512  B.C.,  Darius  invaded  the  Punjab  in  Northern 
India  and  acquired  extensive  territory,  of  which  he  formed  a 
new  satrapy.  Declining  to  push  his  conquests  further  east, 
he  had  a  fleet  constructed  and  placed  under  the  orders  of 
Scylax,  a  Greek  admiral,  who  descended  the  Indus  river  to 
its  mouth.  Hence  he  set  sail  westward,  and  arrived  in  less 
than  thirty  months  at  the  coast  of  Arabia.  Darius  next 
directed  his  attention  to  securing  his  northwest  frontier.  The 
coast  of  the  Black  Sea  was  explored,  the  Bosphorus  was 
bridged,  and  the  steppes  of  Southern  Russia  were  swept  by 
the  Persian  army.  Meanwhile  Thrace  had  been  reduced, 
and  Macedonia  made  a  tributary  kingdom. 

But  in  501  B.C.  came  the  Ionic  revolt,  when  Sardis  was 
burnt  by  the  Athenians.  Darius,  bent  on  vengeance,  no 
longer  delayed  to  listen  to  Hippias,  the  exiled  tyrant  of 
Athens.  He  sent  envoys  to  demand  the  submission  of  Ath- 
ens and  the  restoration  of  the  tyrant  When  satisfaction  was 
refused,  Mardonius  was  sent  against  the  offending  city  with 
a  large  army.  But  his  fleet  was  wrecked  off  Mount  Athos. 
Two  years  later  (B.C.  490)  the  Persian  army  under  Datis  was 
again  hurled  against  Attica ;  but  Athenian  valor  at  Mara- 
thon drove  back  the  power  hitherto  held  invincible,  and  saved 
Greece.  For  three  years  Asia  was  astir  with  preparations  for 
crushing  the  audacious  Athenians.  Fortunately  for  Athens, 
Egypt  now  revolted  (B.C.  487)  and  diverted  the  blow  which 
would  have  fallen  upon  Greece.  Before  the  Egyptian  revolt 
could  be  suppressed  Darius  died,  in  the  sixty-third  year  of 
his  age  and  the  thirty-sixth  of  his  reign  (B.C.  486). 


THE  name  Burgundy  has  at  vari- 
ous times  been  applied  to  differ- 
ent areas.  But  under  Charles 
the  Bold,  who  followed  the 
policy  of  extension  inaugurated 
by  his  predecessors,  the  posses- 
sions of  the  Duke  included,  be- 
sides the  Duchy  and  County  of 
Burgundy,  Flanders,  Holland, 
Gelderland,  Hainault,  Brabant, 
Namur,  Luxemburg,  Limburg,  Lorraine  and  Alsace.  The 
whole  formed  a  huge  curve,  hemming  in  France  on  the 
east,  and  extending  from  the  Flemish  coast  to  Switzerland. 
For  part  of  this  vast  domain  the  Duke  owed  allegiance  to 
the  King  of  France,  and  for  the  rest  to  the  Emperor  of 
Germany. 

Charles  the  Bold  (  in  French,  Le  Temeraire]  was  the  son 
of  Philip  the  Good,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  was  born  at 
Dijon,  November  10,  1433.  During  his  youth  he  was  known 
as  the  Count  of  Charolais.  He  married  Isabella  of  Bourbon 
in  1454,  and  in  1464  the  Princess  Margaret  of  York.  When  he 
succeeded  his  father  as  Duke  of  Burgundy,  in  1467,  he  was 
still  in  the  prime  of  life,  a  man  of  decided  promise.  He  was 
chivalrous,  refined,  open  to  good  influences,  well  educated, 
highly  accomplished,  athletic,  energetic  and  ambitious.  But 
despite  all  these  good  qualities  his  pride,  choler  and  obstinacy, 
in  the  course  of  years,  brought  out  strongly  the  darker  side  of 
his  nature  and  eventually  caused  his  ruin. 

The  conflict  with  Louis  XL  of  France,  forms  a  dominant 
note  in  his  life,  a  conflict  extending  from  the  intrigues  of 
126 


CHARGES  THE    BOLD.  127 

Louis,  while  a  refugee  at  the  court  of  old  Duke  Philip,  to  his 
sinister  influence  on  Charles'  career  to  the  very  end.  On  the 
one  hand,  the  "imperial  dreamer,"  the  man  of  "great 
thoughts,"  whose  ambition  conceived  of  the  establishment  of 
a  grand  "  Empire  of  the  Rhine,"  a  stepping-stone  to  a  new 
and  splendid  Holy  Roman  Empire  ;  on  the  other,  the  founder 
of  absolute  monarchy  in  France,  a  master  in  state-craft  and 
intrigues. 

When  Louis  ascended  the  throne,  Charles  became  the 
leading  spirit  of  the  great  nobles'  ' '  League  of  the  Public 
Weal ' '  against  the  French  king.  At  Montleheri  that  queer 
battle  ensued  between  Louis  and  Charles  (16  July,  1465),  in 
which  both  sides  ran  away  and  both  claimed  the  victory.  The 
Leaguers  besieged  Paris  unsuccessfully,  but  made  what 
appeared  to  be  very  favorable  terms  with  the  king  in  the 
Peace  of  Conflans,  (October  5,  1465),  but  the  wily  sovereign, 
having  lulled  the  princes  into  a  feeling  of  security,  could  with 
more  ease  attack  them  separately.  Charles  was  powerless,  for 
the  League  was  broken  up  ;  but  he  meted  out  severe  and 
savage  punishment  to  the  town  of  Dinant,  which  had  com- 
bined against  him  with  Liege.  From  this  expedition  he 
returned  to  find  his  father  dying,  nursed  him  to  the  end,  and 
gave  signs  of  a  real  and  deep  grief  when  it  came. 

In  1464  Charles  had  allied  himself  with  England's  royal 
house  of  York  ;  these  two,  together  with  Brittany,  Aragon 
and  Castile,  formed  a  powerful  league.  The  Duke  of  Brittany 
was  quickly  put  down  by  the  king,  who  resolved  to  treat  with 
Charles  in  person.  He  met  him  at  Peronne,  and  it  is  rather 
remarkable  that,  in  those  days  of  deceit,  perjury,  and  myste- 
rious and  violent  deaths,  he  should  have  escaped  with  his  life. 
As  it  was,  he  had  to  submit  to  abject  humiliation  at  the  hands 
of  the  wrathful  Duke,  signed  peace  at  any  price,  and  was 
forced  to  be  present  at  the  fearful  punishment  of  the  revolted 
citizens  of  Liege  (1468).  But  Louis,  once  free  again,  con- 
vened a  packed  assembly  of  notables  (1470),  who  speedily 
found  that  Charles  had  broken  the  Treaty  of  Peronne,  and  his 
well-trained  army  soon  gave  the  Duke  plenty  to  worry  about; 
so  that  the  latter  made  a  three  months'  truce  with  Louis 
(10  April,  1471).  Once  more  was  his  policy  of  coalition 


128  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

brought  into  play,  but  the  king's  brother  Charles,  Duke  of 
Guienne,  on  whom  Charles  the  Bold  had  counted,  died  in 
1472,  and  the  great  League  crumbled  to  dust.  The  wrathy 
Duke  crossed  the  Somme,  ravaging  the  country  in  bloodthirsty 
fury  :  Nesle  was  destroyed  with  great  slaughter  and  Roye 
submitted,  but  at  Beauvais  he  failed  before  the  valor  of  the 
citizens,  men  and  women;  at  Dieppe  he  was  also  unsuccessful, 
and  at  Rouen  he  waited  in  vain  for  the  Duke  of  Brittany, 
whom  Louis  had  overpowered  in  the  meantime.  Charles  left 
the  land,  and  a  truce  was  signed  in  the  fall  of  the  same  *year 
(1472)  between  him  and  Louis. 

Fresh  fields  of  conquest  now  attracted  the  Duke.  To  his 
already  large  possessions  were  added  Alsatia,  Breisgau,  and, 
in  1473,  Lorraine  and  Guelders,  thus  giving  him  control  of 
both  ends  of  the  Rhine.  Lordship  over  the  whole  of  the 
river  would  be  the  first  step  towards  the  satisfaction  of  his 
ambitions.  A  noteworthy  interview  between  him  and  the 
Emperor  Frederick  III.  took  place  in  the  same  year  (1473)  at 
Treves,  but  the  wary  emperor  secretly  decamped.  Negotia- 
tions having  failed  to  further  his  project,  he  had  resort  to 
force.  He  marched  an  army  down  to  Neuss,  near  Cologne, 
but  the  little  town  held  out  stubbornly,  and  Charles  persisted 
obstinately  in  a  tedious  and  ill-advised  siege  of  eleven  months. 
Finally,  he  came  to  terms  with  the  Pope  and  the  Emperor, 
and  withdrew  ;  but  his  star  was  in  the  descendent 

Edward  IV.  landed  in  France,  as  agreed  upon;  but  he  and 
the  Duke  failed  to  make  connections,  and  he  was  bought  off 
with  72,000  crowns  by  Louis.  The  Duke  now  overran  Lor- 
raine, and  took  Nanci  (30  November,  1475) ;  the  following 
year  he  attacked  the  Swiss  town  of  Granson,  and  put  the 
citizens  to  death.  But  the  Swiss  wreaked  speedy  vengeance 
on  him  soon  after  :  the  Burgundians  fled  in  a  wild  panic,  and 
all  the  treasures  of  the  camp  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  moun- 
taineers. Charles,  however,  raised  another  army  at  Lausanne, 
and  marched  against  Bern.  But  he  got  no  further  than 
Morat,  for  the  brave  garrison  of  that  place  barred  the  way 
while  a  large  force  of  Germans,  Alsatians,  Lorrainers  and 
Swiss  came  up.  In  the  battle  of  Morat,  June  22,  1476,  his 
army  was  destroyed  and  his  power  broken. 


CHARLES  THE    BOLD.  1 29 

Charles  the  Bold,  though  conscious  of  the  lacK  of  depend- 
ence to  be  placed  in  feudal  levies,  since  he  made  attempts  to 
found  a  standing  army,  lacked  discretion  in  his  plans  of  battle, 
and  was  a  poor  military  commander  even  at  a  time  when  the 
art  of  modern  warfare  was  quite  in  its  infancy.  After  his 
defeat  at  Morat,  he  managed  to  raise  another  force  and  has- 
tened to  Nanci,  but  there  met  total  defeat  and  death,  January 
4,  1477,  in  a  battle  with  Duke  Rene,  against  superior  num- 
bers. The  proud,  haughty,  obstinate  Duke,  who  had  begun 
with  high  ideals  and  ended  as  a  cruel  and  obstinate  war-lord, 
was  found  on  the  day  after  the  battle  in  a  swamp,  his  naked 
body  covered  with  wounds.  He  had  lived  up  to  his  motto : 
"  J'ay  empris,"  and  had  failed. 

THE  INVASION  OF  SWITZERLAND. 

The  army  which  Charles  of  Burgundy  led  against  the 
Swiss  was  already  exhausted  by  two  winters'  campaigns, 
and  finding  snow  in  the  month  of  March  in  this  cold  Swit- 
zerland, betrayed  no  great  eagerness  for  the  expedition,  if  we 
may  judge  by  a  threat  of  the  duke's  in  his  general  order, 
(February  26),  that  all  caught  deserting  should  be  broken 
alive  on  the  wheel.  This  army,  somewhat  recruited  in 
Franche-Comte,  hardly  exceeded  eighteen  thousand  men  in 
number,  to  which  are  to  be  added  eight  thousand  Piedmontese 
or  Savoyards,  led  by  James  of  Savoy.  On  the  i8th  of  Febru- 
ary the  duke  arrived  before  Granson,  which,  contrary  to  his 
expectation,  detained  him  until  the  28th.  A  brave  garrison 
first  maintained  the  town,  and  then  the  castle,  against  the 
assaults  of  the  Burgundians.  On  this,  some  courtesans  and 
a  man  were  sent  in  with  an  offer  that  their  lives  should  be 
spared.  They  surrendered.  But  the  duke  had  not  author- 
ized the  man  to  treat,  and  was  angered  with  the  Swiss  for 
having  delayed  a  prince  like  him,  who  did  them  the  honor  to 
attack  them  in  person ;  so  he  suffered  the  people  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  who  had  more  than  one  grudge  to  pay  off, 
to  wreak  their  pleasure  upon  them.  The  Swiss  were  either 
drowned  in  the  lake,  or  hung  on  the  battlements. 

The  army  of  the  confederates  was  at  Neufchatel.     Great 
was  their  surprise  and  indignation  at  having  lost  Granson, 
9 


130  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

and,  next,  Vaumarcus,  which  surrendered  without  striking  a 
blow.  They  advanced,  in  order  to  recover  it.  The  duke, 
who  occupied  a  strong  position  on  the  heights,  left  it,  and 
advanced  likewise,  in  quest  of  provisions.  He  descended  into 
a  narrow  plain,  where  he  was  forced  to  extend  his  line  and 
march  in  columns. 

The  men  of  the  canton  of  Schweitz,  who  were  some  dis- 
tance in  advance,  suddenly  found  themselves  face  to  face  with 
the  Burgundians.  They  summoned,  and  were  soon  joined 
by  Berne,  Soleure  and  Fribourg.  These  cantons,  the  only 
ones  which  had  yet  arrived  on  the  field  of  battle,  were  to  bear 
the  shock  alone.  They  knelt  a  moment  in  prayer  ;  then 
rising  and  fixing  their  long  lances  in  the  ground,  the  point 
towards  the  enemy,  they  waited  immovable  and  invincible. 

The  Burgundians  displayed  but  little  skill.  They  were 
ignorant  how  to  use  their  artillery,  and  pointed  their  cannon 
too  high.  The  men-at-arms,  according  to  the  old  custom, 
flung  themselves  upon  the  lances,  where  they  were  dashed  to 
pieces  and  broken  ;  their  own  lances  were  only  ten  feet  long, 
whilst  those  of  the  Swiss  were  eighteen.  The  duke  marched 
bravely  to  the  attack  at  the  head  of  his  infantry  against  that 
of  the  Swiss  ;  whilst  the  valiant  Count  de  Chateauguyon 
charged  his  flanks  with  his  cavalry,  and  twice  forced  his  way 
up  to  the  enemy's  standard,  touched  it,  and  fancied  it  won ; 
twice  he  was  repulsed,  and  at  last  slain.  No  effort  could 
divide  the  impenetrable  mass. 

With  a  view  to  throw  it  into  confusion  and  draw  it  lower 
down  into  the  plain,  the  duke  ordered  his  first  line  to  fall 
back,  which  retrograde  movement  struck  a  panic  into  the 
second.  At  this  moment,  a  sudden  sunburst  displayed  on 
the  left  a  new  army — Uri,  Underwald  and  Lucerne,  the  men 
of  which  cantons  had  at  length  come  up,  having  made  their 
way  in  single  file  along  a  snow-track,  from  which  a  hundred 
horsemen  could  have  precipitated  them.  Tha  trump  of 
Underwald  lowed  in  the  valley,  with  the  wild  horns  of 
Lucerne  and  Uri.  All  uttered  a  cry  of  vengeance,  "Granson, 
Granson  !  "  The  Burgundians  of  the  second  line,  who  were 
already  falling  back  on  the  third,  saw  with  dread  these  fresh 
troops  deploying  on  their  flank.  Even  from  the  camp  arose 


CHARLES   THE   BOLD.  13! 

the  cry,  u  Sauve  qui  peut"  From  that  instant  nothing 
could  stop  their  flight ;  vain  was  it  for  the  Duke  to  seize  them 
or  cut  them  down.  They  fled  without  a  thought  but  of 
flight :  never  was  rout  more  complete.  "  The  Confederates," 
says  the  chronicler  with  a  savage  joy,  "  the  Confederates  fell 
upon  them  like  the  hail,  cutting  up  these  gay  popinjays 
piecemeal ;  so  thoroughly  discomfited  and  put  to  the  rout  are 
these  poor  Burgundians,  that  they  seem  smoke  scattered  by 
the  northeast  wind."  So  narrow  was  the  plain,  that  few  had 
been  actually  engaged.  It  had  been  panic  and  rout,  rather 
than  actual  defeat.  Comines,  who,  as  being  with  the  king, 
would,  undoubtedly,  have  asked  no  better  than  to  believe  the 
loss  had  been  considerable,  says  that  there  were  only  seven 
men-at-arms  slain  :  the  Swiss  said  three  thousand. 

He  had  lost  little,  but  infinitely.  The  charm  was  dissi- 
pated. He  was  no  longer  Charles  the  Terrible.  Valiant  as 
he  was,  he  had  shown  his  back.  His  great  sword  of  honor 
was  now  hung  up  at  Fribourg  or  at  Berne.  Into  the  famous 
tent  of  audience  of  red  velvet,  which  princes  entered  trem- 
bling, clowns  had  unceremoniously  forced  their  way.  The 
chapel,  the  very  saints  of  the  house  of  Burgundy,  which  he 
carried  about  with  him  in  their  shrines  and  reliquaries,  had 
allowed  themselves  to  be  taken  :  they  were  now  the  saints  of 
the  enemy.  His  celebrated  diamonds,  known  by  their  names 
all  over  Christendom,  were  thrown  aside  at  first  as  bits  of 
glass,  and  flung  on  the  highway.  The  symbolic  collar  of  the 
Fleece,  the  ducal  seal,  that  dreaded  seal  which  sealed  life  or 
death — to  be  handled,  exposed,  defiled,  ridiculed  !  A  Swiss 
had  the  audacity  to  take  the  hat  which  had  shaded  the 
majesty  of  that  terrible  brow  (depositary  of  such  vast 
dreams  !)  ;  he  tried  it  on,  laughed,  and  then  cast  it  on  the 
ground. 

Charles  felt  what  he  had  lost,  and  every  one  besides  felt  it 
too.  King  Louis,  who  up  to  this  moment  had  lived  at  Lyons 
much  neglected,  who  sent  everywhere,  and  was  everywhere 
badly  received,  saw  the  crowd  gradually  return.  The  most 
decided  of  these  repentant  deserters  was  the  Duke  of  Milan, 
who  offered  to  advance  the  king  a  hundred  thousand  ducats 
in  ready  money,  if  he  would  fall  upon  the  duke  and  pursue 


132  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

him  without  allowing  him  peace  or  truce.  King  Rene,  who 
had  only  waited  for  an  envoy  from  the  duke  to  give  over 
Provence  into  his  hands,  came  to  Lyons  to  offer  his  excuses. 
He  was  old,  and  his  nephew,  his  heir,  sick  ;  and  as  Louis  XL , 
when  he  saw  them  concluded  they  would  not  last  long,  he 
settled  upom  them  a  good  pension  for  life,  in  consideration 
of  which  they  secured  Provence  to  him  after  their  demise. 

The  Duchess  of  Savoy,  a  sister  truly  worthy  of  him, 
played  double.  She  sent  a  message  to  him  to  Lyons,  but  set 
off  herself  to  the  Duke  of  Burgundy. 

The  latter  had  established  himself  with  her  at  Lausanne, 
as  being  the  central  point  where  he  could  most  quickly 
assemble  what  troops  might  come  to  him  from  Savoy,  from 
Italy,  and  from  Franche-Comte.  These  troops  arrived  slowly, 
and  at  their  pleasure  ;  he  was  devoured  with  impatience. 
He  had  himself  aided  to  alarm  and  disperse  those  who  had 
fled,  and  to  prevent  them  from  returning  to  his  banner  by 
threats  of  condign  punishment.  What  with  his  compulsory 
inactivity,  his  shame  at  his  defeat  at  Granson,  his  thirst  for 
vengeance,  the  impotence  which  he  had  to  feel  for  the  first 
time  now  that  he  was  taught  that  he  was  only  a  mortal,  he 
was  suffocated  ;  his  heart  seemed  ready  to  burst.  He  was  at 
Lausanne ;  not  in  the  city,  but  in  his  camp,  on  the  height 
commanding  the  lake  and  the  Alps  ;  solitary  and  ferocious, 
and  suffering  his  beard  to  grow,  which  he  had  sworn  that  he 
would  not  cut  until  he  had  once  more  seen  the  Swiss  face  to 
face.  He  would  scarcely  allow  his  physician,  Angelo  Cato, 
to  come  near  him,  who,  however,  managed  to  apply  cupping- 
glasses  to  him,  got  him  to  drink  a  little  wine,  unmixed,  (he 
was  a  water-drinker,)  and  even  persuaded  him  to  allow  him- 
self to  be  shaved. 

The  good  Duchess  of  Savoy  arrived  to  console  him,  and 
sent  home  for  silk  to  refit  his  wardrobe — he  had  remained  in 
the  torn,  dishevelled  array  in  which  the  flight  from  Granson 
had  left  him.  Nor  did  she  stop  here  ;  she  clothed  his  troops, 
and  had  hats  and  scarfs  made  for  them.  Money  and  equip- 
ments of  every  kind  were  sent  him  from  Venice,  and  even 
from  Milan  (which  was  plotting  against  him. )  He  was  sup- 
plied by  the  Pope  and  by  Bologna  with  four  thousand  Italians, 


CHARLES  THE   BOLD.  133 

and  recruited  to  its  full  number  his  good  troop  of  three  thou- 
sand English.  There  came  from  his  own  dominions  six 
thousand  Walloons ;  and,  finally,  from  Flanders  and  from  the 
Low  Countries  two  thousand  knights  or  holders  of  fiefs,  who, 
with  their  body  attendants,  formed  a  fine  body  of  five  or  six 
thousand  horse.  The  Prince  of  Tarentum,  who  was  close  to 
the  duke  when  he  reviewed  his  troops,  computed  them  at 
twenty-three  thousand  fighting  men,  over  and  above  the  large 
number  of  artillery  men  and  baggage  attendants ;  to  which 
must  be  added  nine  thousand  men,  subsequently  reinforced 
by  four  thousand  more,  from  the  Savoyard  army  of  the  Count 
de  Romont  The  duke,  finding  himself  at  the  head  of  this 
large  array,  resumed  all  his  pride,  and  even  took  upon  him- 
self to  threaten  the  king  on  the  Pope's  account — no  longer 
thinking  it  enough  to  have  the  Swiss  upon  his  hands. 

The  unheard-of  efforts  made  by  the  Count  de  Romont,  and 
undertaken  through  his  agency,  to  crush  the  allies,  and 
which  were  ruining  Savoy  for  the  sake  of  the  camp  of  Lau- 
sanne, confirmed  the  prevalent  report  that  the  duke  had  pro- 
mised his  daughter's  hand  to  the  young  Duke  of  Savoy,  that 
the  territory  of  Berne  had  been  partitioned  out  by  anticipa- 
tion, and  that  he  had  already  bestowed  its  fiefs  on  the  nobles 
who  had  taken  the  field  with  him.  Berne  wrote  letter  upon 
letter,  each  more  pressing  than  the  last,  to  the  German  cities, 
to  the  King  of  France,  and  to  the  other  Swiss  cantons.  Accord- 
ing to  his  wont,  the  king  promised  succor,  but  sent  not  a 
man.  It  was  precisely  that  period  of  the  year  when  the  con- 
federate mountaineers  were  in  the  habit  of  driving  their  flocks 
to  the  higher  mountain  pastures ;  and  it  was  no  easy  matter 
to  get  them  to  descend  and  assemble  together ;  they  did  not 
well  understand  how,  to  defend  Switzerland,  it  was  essential 
to  march  into  Vaud  and  make  that  the  battle-field. 

Yet  it  was  on  the  frontier  that  the  war  was  about  to  break 
out.  Berne  rightly  judged  that  the  attack  would  be  made 
upon  Morat,  which  she  considered  to  be  her  advance  guard. 
The  troops  sent  to  defend  this  town  were  not  without  uneasi- 
ness, remembering  Granson,  and  its  unsuccored,  hung, 
drowned  garrison.  To  quiet  their  fears  of  being  similarly 
abandoned  to  fate,  out  of  every  family  in  which  there  were 


134  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

two  brothers,  one  was  chosen  for  the  defence  of  Morat, 
the  other  drafted  to  the  army  of  Berne.  The  honest  and 
valiant  Bubenberg  undertook  the  conduct  of  the  defence,  and 
this  post  of  trust  was  unhesitatingly  confided  to  the  leader  of 
the  Burgundian  party. 

There,  nevertheless,  lay  the  salvation  of  Switzerland ;  all 
depended  on  the  resistance  offered  by  this  town  ;  it  was  neces- 
sary to  allow  the  Confederates  time  to  assemble,  since  their 
enemy  was  ready.  He  did  not  push  his  advantage;  he 
marched  from  Lausanne  on  the  27th  of  May,  and  did  not 
reach  Morat  until  the  loth  of  June,  when  he  invested  the 
town  on  the  land  side,  and  left  the  lake  open,  so  that  the 
besieged  could  receive  provisions  and  ammunition  at  pleasure. 
Apparently,  he  deemed  himself  too  strong  to  be  resisted  ; 
and  thought  to  carry  the  town  at  once.  Repeated  assaults, 
urged  for  ten  days  continuously,  utterly  failed.  The  country 
was  against  him.  Friend  of  the  Pope,  as  the  duke  was, 
and  the  legate  accompanying  him  to  boot,  the  whole  land 
was  horrified  at  his  Italians,  who  were  looked  upon  as  infa- 
mous wretches  and  heretics.  At  Laupen,  a  priest  bravely  led 
his  parishioners  into  battle. 

Morat  held  out,  and  the  Swiss  had  time  to  assemble.  The 
red  coats  of  Alsace  came  to  its  relief,  despite  the  emperor ; 
and  with  them  the  youthful  Rene,  a  duke  without  a  duchy, 
the  sight  of  whom  alone  recalled  to  men's  minds  all  the  acts 
of  injustice  committed  by  the  Burgundian.  This  young  man, 
equally  innocent  and  unfortunate,  abandoned  by  his  two 
natural  protectors,  the  king  and  the  emperor,  and  who  came 
to  fight  on  the  side  of  the  Swiss,  arrived  at  the  very  moment 
of  the  engagement,  like  a  living  image  of  persecuted  justice 
and  of  the  good  cause.  The  troops  of  Zurich  joined  at  the 
same  time. 

The  evening  before  the  battle,  while  the  whole  population 
of  Berne  filled  the  churches  and  offered  up  prayers  to  God  for 
the  event,  the  Zurichers  passed  through.  The  town  was  at 
once  lighted  up,  tables  spread  for  them,  and  a  festival  pre- 
pared ;  but  they  were  in  too  great  haste  to  stop,  in  their  fears 
of  arriving  late;  so  embraces  were  quickly  exchanged,  and 
they  were  wished  u  God  speed."  Fine  and  irreparable  mo- 


CHARGES  THE   BOLD.  135 

ment  of  sincere  fraternity,  which  Switzerland  has  never  since 
enjoyed.  They  left  Berne  at  ten,  singing  their  war-songs, 
marched  the  whole  night,  despite  of  the  rain,  and  joined  the 
main  body  of  the  Confederates  at  a  very  early  hour.  All 
heard  matins;  and  then  numbers  were  dubbed  knights, 
whether  nobles  or  burgesses  matters  not  The  good  young 
Rene,  who  had  no  pride,  desired  to  be  made  a  knight  too. 
There  was  nothing  now  to  do  but  to  march  to  battle.  Many, 
through  impatience  (or  through  devotion?),  took  neither 
bread  nor  wine,  but  fasted  on  that  sacred  day  (22d  June,  1476.) 

The  duke,  though  warned  the  evening  before,  persisted  in 
disbelieving  that  the  army  of  the  Swiss  was  in  a  state  to 
attack  him.  Both  parties  had  nearly  the  same  number  of 
men ;  about  thirty-four  thousand  on  each  side.  But  the 
Swiss  were  in  one  body,  whilst  the  duke  committed  the  glar- 
ing fault  of  remaining  divided,  and  of  leaving  at  a  distance, 
before  the  opposite  gate  of  Morat,  the  Count  de  Romont's  nine 
thousand  Savoyards.  His  artillery  was  badly  stationed,  and 
his  fine  cavalry  was  of  little  use,  because  he  would  not  give  it 
room  to  act  by  changing  his  position.  He  staked  his  honor 
on  disdaining  to  budge,  on  not  giving  way  one  foot,  on  never 
stirring  from  his  place.  The  battle  was  lost  beforehand. 
The  physician  and  astrologer,  Angelo  Cato,  had  warned  the 
Prince  of  Tarentum,  the  evening  before,  that  he  would  do 
wisely  to  take  his  leave.  On  the  duke's  march  to  Dijon  it 
had  rained  blood ;  and  Angelo  had  predicted  and  written  in 
Italy  the  rout  of  Granson ;  that  of  Morat  was  easier  to  be 
foreseen. 

In  the  morning,  the  duke  draws  up  his  army  in  battle- 
array  under  a  heavy  rain ;  but  the  bows  and  the  powder 
getting  saturated,  the  troops  fall  back  into  the  camp.  The 
Swiss  seize  the  moment,  scale  the  mountain's  brow  from  the 
opposite  side,  clothed  with  wood,  where  they  had  remained 
concealed,  and  when  they  reach  the  summit,  kneel  down 
in  prayer.  The  sun  bursts  forth,  and  at  once  reveals  to  their 
view  the  lake,  the  plain  and  the  enemy.  They  descend  with 
hasty  strides,  shouting  "  Granson  !  Granson  !  "  and  fall  upon 
the  intrenchment,  which  they  had  charged  whilst  the  duke 
was  still  scouting  the  idea  that  they  would  attack  him. 


136  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

The  cainp  was  covered  by  a  numerous  train  of  artillery, 
but,  as  was  common  in  those  days,  badly  and  slowly  served. 
The  Purgundian  cavalry  charged  and  broke  their  opponents, 
and  Rene  had  a  horse  killed  under  him ;  but  the  infantry,  the 
immovable  spearsmen,  came  to  their  support.  Meanwhile,  an 
old  Swiss  captain,  who  had  served  with  Huniades  in  his  cam- 
paigns against  the  Turks,  turns  the  battery,  gains  possession 
of  it,  and  directs  the  guns  against  the  Burgundians.  On  the 
other  hand,  Bubenberg,  sallying  out  of  Morat,  gives  full 
occupation  to  the  corps  commanded  by  the  bastard  of  Bur- 
gundy. The  duke,  being  thus  deprived  of  the  services  of  the 
bastard  and  of  the  Count  de  Romont,  was  left  but  twenty 
thousand  men  to  oppose  to  more  than  thirty  thousand.  The 
rear-guard  of  the  Swiss,  which  had  not  yet  been  engaged, 
made  a  movement  which  placed  them  in  the  rear  of  the 
Burgundians,  so  as  to  cut  off  their  retreat  They  thus 
found  themselves  hemmed  in  on  both  sides,  and  met  on  the 
third  by  the  garrison  of  Morat.  The  fourth  was  the  lake. 
In  the  plain  between,  there  was  resistance,  and  a  fearful 
resistance — the  duke's  guard  fought  till  cut  to  pieces ;  so  did 
his  personal  attendants,  so  did  the  English.  All  the  rest  of 
the  army,  a  confused,  bewildered  mass,  was  gradually  im- 
pelled towards  the  lake.  The  men-at-arms  sunk  into  the 
muddy  shore  ;  the  foot  soldiers  were  drowned,  or  afforded  the 
Swiss  the  cruel  pleasure  of  riddling  them  with  arrow  after 
arrow.  No  pity  was  shown  ;  they  slew  as  many  as  eight  or 
ten  thousand  men,  whose  heaped  up  bones  formed  for  three 
centuries  a  hideous  monument. — M.  MICHELET. 


STATS  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 


OLIVER  CROMWELL. 


UNTIL  the  present  century  English 
historians  have  not  merely  neglected 
but  have  done  flagrant  injustice  to 
Oliver  Cromwell,  who  was  certainly 
entitled  to  a  foremost  place  among 
their  statesmen  and  rulers.  Though 
his  acts  proved  him  one  of  the  most 
extraordinary  men  that  ever  lived, 
it  was  deemed  sufficient  by  most 
writers  to  pronounce  him  at  once  a 
fierce  fanatic  and  an  odious  hypocrite 

— two  incompatible  characters.  But  the  genius  of  Carlyle 
and  the  judgment  of  Macaulay,  confirmed  by  the  sober  sense 
of  subsequent  impartial  investigators  of  the  Parliamentary 
struggle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  have  set  the  character 
and  career  of  the  Lord  Protector  of  the  British  Common- 
wealth in  their  true  light,  and  proved  him  to  be  a  genuine 
and  most  striking  embodiment  of  that  spirit  which  has  made 
English  institutions  and  ideas  dominant  over  so  great  a  part 
of  the  world. 

Oliver  Cromwell  was  born  at  Huntingdon  on  the  25th  of 
April,  1599.  His  father,  Robert  Cromwell,  was  the  second 
son  of  Sir  Henry  Cromwell  of  Hinchinbrook,  surnamed  from 
his  munificence  "the  Golden  Knight."  His  mother,  Eliza- 
beth Steward,  was  descended  from  the  royal  line  of  Scotland. 
He  inherited  from  his  father  an  ample  estate.  In  April,  1616, 
he  entered  Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
remained  until  his  father  died,  in  June,  1617.  He  began  the 
study  of  law  in  London,  but  having  there  married  Elizabeth 
Bourchier,  in  1620,  he  settled  on  the  ancestral  estate  at 

137 


138  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

Huntingdon.     Here  he  passed  many  years  in  the  cultivation 

of   the  soil,    and  came  into   intimate   fellowship  with   the 

Puritans,   who  were  then  beginning  to  resist  the  arbitrary 

tendencies  of  the  king  in  both  Church  and  State.     Cromwell 

represented  the  borough  of  Huntingdon  in  the  parliament 

which  met  in  1628,  and  was  dissolved  in  March,  1629.     ^  nad> 

h  ~>wever,  done  great  service  to  liberty  by  enacting  the  famous 

Petition  of   Right,  which  deprived   the   king  of  power  to 

'son  without  cause  shown,  and  to  make  forced  loans.     In 

•rliament   Cromwell   made   his   first   speech  rebuking 

bishops  for  advancing  clergymen  who  had  been  censured  by 

'tousc1  of  Commons.     This  was  the  last  parliament  that 

met  In   li  ;.yland  for  eleven  years,  during  which  period  the 

ubject  to  the  arbitrary  and  tyrannical  personal 

timeiit  of  the  king. 

According  to  some  authorities,  Cromwell  and  his  cousin, 
John  Ha^  i  1637,  resolved  to  emigrate  to  North  America 

foi  tii«_  rutke  of  liberty.  They  had  even  embarked  on  a  ship, 
but  were  detained  by  order  of  the  king  or  his  council,  and  so 
they  remained  ir  nd.  This  statement,  however,  seems 

to  be  incorrect,  as  are  IP  any  others  about  Cromwell's  early 
life.  He  represented  CVnbridge  in  the  Short  Parliament 
which  me  i  for  three  weeks  in  April,  1640,  and  also  in  the 
Long  Parliament  /inch  succeeded  it  in  November  of  that 
year.  When  he  rotsc  once  to  address  the  House,  Lord  Digby 
asked  Hampden  who  ''that  sloven  "  was.  Hampden  replied 
that  it  was  Oliver  Cromwell,  and  added,  "That  sloven  whom 
you  see  before  you  jias  no  ornament  in  his  speech  ;  but  if  we 
should  ever  come  to  a  breach  with  the  king,  that  sloven,  I 
say,  will  be  the  greatest  man  in  England."  This  Long  Par- 
liament abolished  the  king's  personal  government,  and  stripped 
the  crown  of  various  arbitrary  powers  it  had  acquired.  Hop- 
ing to  intimidate  the  members,  Charles,  n  January,  1642, 
attempted  to  seize  Hampden  an'i  tour  other  leaders  of  the 
House,  whom  he  accused  of  treason.  But  -warned  of  his 
project  they  had  retired,  and  the  attempt  r<  oiled  on  the  king. 
Both  parties  then  appealed  to  an 

At  the  mature  age  of  forty-three  Crom  <  ered  the 

Parliamentary  army  as  captain  of  cavalry,  and  soon  distin- 


OLIVER   CROMWEI.I,.  139 

guished  himself  by  practical  sagacity,  military  genius,  and 
strict  discipline.  He  took  care  to  enlist  in  this  service 
yeomen  of  the  rural  districts,  Puritans  and  other  men  of  firm 
principles.  Thus  he  gradually  gathered  a  regiment  whose 
title  of  ' '  Ironsides ' '  has  become  memorable  in  history.  In 
1643  the  Earl  of  Manchester  was  appointed  general  of  an 
army,  with  Cromwell  as  lieutenant-general.  The  latter  gained 
his  first  victory  in  July  near  Gainsborough,  over  a  body  three 
times  as  large  as  his  own,  and  again  defeated  the  royalist 
horse  at  Winceby  in  October  of  that  year.  In  the  following 
April  the  Scotch  Covenanted  army  entered  England  and 
joined  the  Parliamentary  forces.  On  July  2,  1644,  in  the 
great  battle  of  Marston  Moor,  Cromwell  commanded  the  left 
wing,  and  after  sweeping  all  opposing  him,  turned  to  aid 
Fairfax,  who  had  been  overpowered  by  the  royalist  left  wing, 
commanded  by  Prince  Rupert.  In  his  own  forcible  phrase, 
"  God  made  them  as  stubble  to  our  swords."  The  other 
Parliamentary  generals  had  lost  their  armies,  but  Parliament 
granted  them  fresh  troops  and  ordered  Manchester  to  join 
them.  Though  the  result  of  the  conflict  at  Newbury,  in 
October,  was  in  their  favor,  Cromwell  could  not  persuade 
Manchester  to  follow  up  his  advantage. 

Returning  to  Parliament  he  urged  the  remodeling  of  the 
army,  which  was  finally  agreed  to.  By  the  "self-denying 
ordinance,"  members  of  Parliament  were  prohibited  from 
holding  military  offices.  Soldiers  were  also  permitted  to 
enlist  without  signing  the  Covenant,  which  had  been  prepared 
by  the  Presbyterians  as  a  basis  of  government  for  the  king- 
dom, but  was  rejected  by  the  Independents,  who  were  steadily 
becoming  stronger.  The  former  had  a  majority  in  Parlia- 
ment, but  were  unable  to  control  the  current  of  affairs. 

Early  in  1645  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax  was  appointed  general 
of  the  newly-organized  army.  Cromwell  being  exempted 
from  the  self-denying  ordinance,  proved  his  military  skill  in 
several  fights,  and  was  made  lieutenant-general,  with  the 
command  of  the  cavalry.  He  led  the  right  wing  at  the 
decisive  battle  of  Naseby,  I4th  of  June,  1645,  and  totally 
defeated  the  royal  forces.  "  The  stake  played  for  at  Naseby," 
says  Gardiner,  "  was  the  crown  of  England,  and  Charles  lost 


140  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

it"  His  private  papers  captured  here  revealed  his  persistent 
intrigues  to  bring  alien  armies  into  England.  Cromwell 
never  lost  a  battle ;  he  also  became  noted  for  the  success  of 
his  sieges,  capturing  strongholds  that  had  been  deemed 
impregnable.  Early  in  1646  the  civil  war  virtually  came  to 
an  end,  and  Cromwell,  on  his  return  to  Parliament,  was 
received  with  distinguished  honors. 

-*  The  contest  between  the  Independents  and  the  Presby- 
terians occupied  the  next  two  years.  The  king,  yielding  to 
circumstances,  promised  to  establish  Presbyterianism  in  his 
three  realms  and  punish  heresy.  The  city  of  London  was  as 
Presbyterian  as  Parliament,  and  the  Presbyterian  leaders  fan- 
cied themselves  masters  of  the  situation.  The  Parliament 
resolved  in  1647  to  disband  the  army,  which  they  feared  more 
than  the  king.  But  the  army  refused  to  disband.  In  June 
one  of  Cromwell's  officers  seized  the  king  and  removed  him 
from  the  custody  of  Parliament  to  that  of  the  army.  A 
Scottish  army  under  the  Duke  of  Hamilton  invaded  England 
on  behalf  of  the  king  in  1648,  and  began  the  second  civil  war. 
In  August  Cromwell,  with  less  than"9,ooo  men,  met  the  enemy 
at  Preston  and  utterly  routed  the  Scottish  army  of  22,000. 

On  December  5,  the  House  of  Commons,  recoiling  from 
the  effect  of  their  own  success,  declared  for  a  reconciliation 
with  the  king.  On  the  next  day  forty-one  royalists  were 
ejected  from  the  House  by  Colonel  Pride,  one  of  Cromwell's 
officers.  The  part  left  seated  was  called  in  derision  the 
Rump.  Of  this  the  Independents  were  in  full  control,  and 
soon  brought  Charles  Stuart  to  trial  for  violation  of  the 
liberties  of  England.  Cromwell  was  a  member  of  the  court 
which  condemned  the  king  to  death,  in  January,  1649. 
Thereupon  Parliament  declared  Great  Britain  to  be  a  Com- 
monwealth. 

Cromwell  was  now  the  most  powerful  man  in  England. 
But  Presbyterian  Scotland  and  Roman  Catholic  Ireland 
acknowledged  Charles  II.  as  rightful  sovereign.  In  August, 
1649,  Cromwell  led  an  army  to  Ireland,  which  was  in  a  state 
of  anarchy.  He  defeated  the  royalists  at  Drogheda  and 
Wexford,  and,  by  punishing  their  resistance  with  frightful 
severity,  reduced  the  rest  of  Ireland  to  speedy  submission. 


OLIVER  CROMWELL.  141 

It  is  remarkable  that  his  brief  rule  brought  to  that  ill-fated 
island  an  unexampled  prosperity. 

In  June,  1650,  Charles  II.  landed  in  Scotland  and  was 
proclaimed  King  by  the  Scotch,  who  raised  an  army  to  fight 
for  him.  Cromwell,  having  been  appointed  by  Parliament 
commander-in-chief,  marched  hastily  into  Scotland.  On 
September  3,  1650,  he  defeated  the  Scotch  army  at  Dunbar, 
and  took  about  10,000  prisoners.  Charles,  however,  was  rein- 
forced and  led  his  army  into  England.  Cromwell  pursued 
him  and  gained  a  complete  victory  at  Worcester,  September 
3,  1651,  absolutely  destroying  the  Scottish  army.  Those 
who  were  not  slain  were  taken  prisoners.  After  this  final 
ruin  of  the  royal  cause,  a  change  in  Cromwell's  manner 
appeared.  Clarendon  observes  that  ' '  his  parts  seemed  to  be 
raised,  as  if  he  had  concealed  his  faculties  till  he  had  occasion 
to  use  them." 

In  April,  1653,  Cromwell  finally  dissolved  the  Long  Par- 
liament, which  had  sunk  from  usefulness  and  glory  to  utter 
shame  and  contempt.  At  the  end  of  that  year  he  assumed 
the  title  of  Lord  Protector  of  the  Commonwealth,  with  much 
of  royal  state  and  nearly  royal  power.  Nominally,  he  was 
restrained  by  a  council  of  state  which  was  independent  of 
him.  The  Protector  and  the  council  moved  forward  in  the 
path  of  conservative  reform.  With  the  poet  Milton  as  his 
Latin  Secretary,  he  defended  the  Protestant  cause  on  the  Con- 
tinent of  Europe  and  compelled  the  respectful  attention  of 
sovereigns  to  his  wishes.  Liberty  of  conscience  was  one  of 
the  principles  of  his  domestic  policy.  He  was  bitterly  hated 
by  the  extreme  royalists  and  by  the  religious  enthusiasts  who 
abused  the  liberty  granted  them.  Charles  II. ,  to  his  disgrace, 
offered  rewards  for  the  murder  of  the  usurper.  In  the  face  of 
such  danger  Oliver  abandoned  the  forms  of  constitutional 
government.  He  divided  England  into  ten  military  districts, 
over  each  of  which  he  set  a  major-general  with  arbitrary 
power. 

The  Protector,  having  become  involved  in  a  war  against 
Spain,  formed,  in  1655,  an  alliance  with  France.  A  new 
Parliament  met  September,  1656,  with  a  remodeled  House  of 
Lords.  Its  subservient  character  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 


142  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS, 

Oliver  was  urged  to  take  the  title  of  king,  but  he  refused. 
In  June,  1658,  the  allied  armies  of  England  and  France 
defeated  the  Spaniards  in  a  great  battle  on  the  Dunes,  and  in 
the  same  month  Dunkirk  surrendered  and  was  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  English.  Cromwell's  political  aims  were  noble, 
but  his  earnest  efforts  to  restore  order  were  partly  frustrated 
by  the  mutinous  and  factious  conduct  of  his  enemies.  Yet 
no  open  resistance  was  made  during  his  life.  His  death 
occurred  after  a  brief  illness,  on  September  3,  1658,  the  anni- 
versary of  his  victories  at  Dunbar  and  Worcester.  He  left 
two  sons,  Richard  and  Henry.  The  former,  weak  and  good- 
natured,  was  easily  thrust  aside  by  determined  men,  and 
monarchy  was  soon  restored. 

Although  it  was  formerly  the  fashion  for  historians  to 
revile  Cromwell  as  a  hypocrite,  a  fanatic,  an  usurper  and  a 
man  of  mediocre  talents,  it  is  now  admitted  by  all  that  as  a 
statesman,  a  reformer  and  general,  he  possessed  abilities  of 
the  highest  order.  "  Never,"  says  Macaulay,  u  was  any  ruler 
so  conspicuously  born  to  sovereignty.  The  cup  which  has 
intoxicated  almost  all  others,  sobered  him.  His  spirit,  rest- 
less from  its  buoyancy  in  a  lower  sphere,  reposed  in  majestic 
placidity  as  soon  as  it  had  reached  the  level  congenial  to  it. 
Rapidly  as  his  fortunes  grew,  his  mind  expanded  more  rapidly 
still.  Insignificant  as  a  private  citizen,  he  was  a  great 
general ;  he  was  a  still  greater  prince." 

THE  BATTLE  OF  NASEBY. 

Cromwell  drew  together  about  6,000  chosen  horse,  marched 
after  Fairfax,  and  on  the  evening  of  the  i3th  of  June,  came  up 
with  him  at  Northampton,  where  he  lay  within  six  miles  of 
Charles.  The  presence  of  Cromwell  at  once  carried  life  and 
energy  into  the  camp  of  Fairfax.  He  found  the  general  still 
uncertain  of  the  movements  of  the  king,  and,  without  hesita- 
tion, suggested  the  propriety  of  sending  out  a  detachment  of 
horse  to  ascertain  the  exact  position  of  the  Royalists,  and  to 
attack  their  rear  should  they  persist  in  retiring  from  the  scene 
of  action.  Cromwell,  resolved  to  bring  on  a  battle,  intrusted 
this  service  to  Ireton,  on  whom  he  could  best  rely,  and  who 
well  justified  his  selection. 


OLIVER  CROMWELL.  143 

The  night  had  scarcely  fallen  when  Ireton  moved  silently 
out  with  a  choice  party  of  men,  charged  and  drove  in  the 
king's  outposts,  and  brought  back  with  him  several  prisoners, 
from  whom  all  necessary  intelligence  as  to  the  number  and 
disposition  of  the  enemy  was  immediately  obtained.  Crom- 
well, in  great  excitement,  declared  for  a  "decisive  action" 
on  the  morrow.  Fairfax  acquiesced,  and  about  an  hour 
before  dawn  on  the  morning  of  the  I4th  of  June,  the  whole 
army  formed,  and  in  deep  silence  and  admirable  order  began 
its  march. 

A  strange  and  agitated  scene  had  meanwhile  been  acting  in 
the  camp  of  Charles.  Ire  ton's  assault  upon  the  outposts 
spread  alarm  with  the  rapidity  of  wildfire ;  officers,  summoned 
out  of  their  beds  to  attend  a  council  of  war,  were  seen  hurry- 
ing towards  the  king's  tent  in  abrupt  excitement  and  disordered 
dress,  and  after  an  hour's  consultation,  the  whole  camp  was 
ordered  into  motion.  With  that  careless  and  characteristic 
gallantry  which,  whatever  their  other  failings,  never  failed 
the  Cavaliers,  the  officers  had  resolved,  notwithstanding  their 
critical  position,  not  only  to  risk,  but  to  advance  and  offer 
battle. 

This  resolution  taken,  the  army  was  at  once  drawn  up  on 
a  rising  ground  about  a  mile  south  from  Harborough,  a  posi- 
tion of  a  most  advantageous  nature  both  for  the  foot,  cavalry, 
and  ordnance.  The  main  body  of  the  infantry,  amounting  to 
about  25,000,  was  put  under  the  command  of  Lord  Ashley ; 
the  right  wing  of  horse,  being  somewhat  less  numerous,  was 
led  by  Prince  Rupert ;  while  the  left  wing,  consisting  of  cav- 
alry from  the  Northern  counties,  and  of  some  detachments 
from  Newark,  in  all  not  exceeding  1600,  was  intrusted  to  the 
charge  of  Sir  Marmaduke  Langdale.  In  the  reserve  were  the 
king's  life-guards,  commanded  by  the  Earl  of  Lindsay,  Prince 
Rupert's  regiment  of  foot,  and  the  royal  horse-guards,  .under 
Lord  Bernard  Stuart,  recently  created  Earl  of  Litchfield. 
Here,  after  remaining  in  order  of  battle  till  eight  o'clock  (still 
the  busy  and  fatal  morning  of  the  I4th  of  June),  Charles 
began  to  doubt  the  intelligence  on  which  they  had  moved, 
when  suddenly  Prince  Rupert,  who  had  dashed  forward  with 
his  characteristic  impetuosity  upward  of  two  miles  in  front  of 


144  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

his  men  to  ascertain  the  intentions  of  Fairfax,  galloped  back, 
and  sent  word  throughout  the  line  that  the  enemy  were  about 
to  turn  their  backs,  and  that  one  fierce  attack  in  pursuit  would 
utterly  disperse  them.  The  word  was  given  ;  Charles  put  his 
army  in  motion ;  and,  relinquishing  the  favorable  ground  he 
had  originally  occupied,  led  his  battalions  into  the  plain,  or 
fallow  field,  about  a  mile  in  breadth,  which  separated  Harbor- 
ough  from  a  village  called  Naseby. 

Here,  with  no  thought  of  retreat,  the  men  of  the  new 
model  had  been  drawn  up  by  their  great  leaders.  Here,  at 
dawn  in  the  morning,  having  sung  a  psalm  in  praise  of  their 
God,  they  had  sat  down  composedly  and  in  rank  with  their 
arms  in  their  hands.  Some  few  troops  merely  had  been  set 
in  motion  by  Cromwell,  and  miserably  had  Rupert,  self- 
deceived,  deceived  his  unfortunate  master ! 

The  position,  a  remarkably  strong  one,  had  been  selected 
by  Cromwell,  who  being  satisfied  early  in  the  march  (from 
catching  a  glimpse  of  a  corps  of  Rupert's  cavalry  in  motion) 
that  the  king  had  doubled  back  on  his  pursuers,  and  deter- 
mined to  give  rather  than  receive  battle,  suggested  to  Fairfax 
the  fallow  field  near  Naseby.  Along  the  ridge  of  a  gentle 
eminence  the  men  were  drawn  up,  the  infantry  in  the  centre, 
the  cavalry  on  either  flank,  and  some  twenty  pieces  of  artil- 
lery so  well  planted  as  to  cover  every  avenue  of  approach. 
Fairfax  and  Skippon  commanded  the  main  battle,  Cromwell 
took  the  right  wing,  and  at  his  request  Fairfax  gave  Ireton 
upon  the  field  the  rank  of  commissary-general,  and  the  com- 
mand of  the  horse  on  the  left.  The  forces  were  nearly  equal, 
and  might  amount  altogether  to  about  36,000  men. 

Rupert  began  the  battle,  and  charged  Ireton  with  such 
furious  force  that  even  the  astonishing  resistance  of  that  lion- 
like  soldier  opposed  the  shock  in  vain.  Again  and  again  he 
strove. to  rally  his  men,  but  Rupert  hewed  down  everything 
before  him.  At  the  head  of  the  last  few  troops  who  had 
kept  their  ground,  Ireton  then  threw  himself,  with  the  terri- 
ble courage  of  despair,  on  a  body  of  the  royal  infantry ;  their 
pikes  pierced  him  in  the  face  and  thigh,  he  fell  senseless  from 
his  horse,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  only  in  the  subsequent  rout 
recovered  by  his  friends.  His  division  was  now  utterly  dis- 


OLIVER  CROMWEU,.  145 

persed,  and  Rupert,  regardless,  after  his  impetuous  fashion,  of 
the  fate  of  the  main  body  of  the  men  engaged,  rushed  on 
after  the  fugitives,  drove  them  through  their  reserves  with  the 
gay  excitement  that  belonged  to  the  hunting-field  rather  than 
the  collected  resolution  and  foresight  necessary  in  such  a 
momentous  battle,  and  having  reached  the  enemy's  cannon 
and  baggage  in  the  rear,  only  turned  round  his  jaded  horse- 
men when  they  had  lost  all  further  opportunity  of  service. 

Fairfax,  meanwhile,  maintained  in  the  centre  an  unequal 
fight.  Abandoning  the  privileges  of  a  captain,  he  grappled 
personally  with  the  foe,  galloped  through  the  thickest  of  the 
fray,  and  his  helmet  having  been  beaten  to  pieces,  still  bare- 
headed as  he  was,  flamed  resolution  and  courage-  everywhere 
among  his  men,  when  the  colonel  of  his  body-guard,  Charles 
D'Oyley,  threw  himself  before  him  with  his  own  helmet, 
entreating  him  not  to  hazard  unduly  so  rich  a  life.  "'Tis 
well  enough,  Charles,"  said  Fairfax,  putting  the  proffered 
helmet  by. 

But,  with  total  rout  upon  the  left  wing,  and  fearful  uncer- 
tainty in  the  centre,  Cromwell  and  his  Ironsides  now  singly 
decided  the  battle.  I,angdale  had  charged  after  Rupert's 
example,  but  might  as  well  have  charged  against  a  rock. 
Recoiling  from  the  steady  shock  of  that  iron  wall,  Cromwell 
charged  him  in  his  turn,  first  with  a  heavy  fire  of  carbines, 
next  at  the  sword's  point,  routed  the  whole  of  his  cavalry, 
sent  three  squadrons  after  them  to  prevent  their  rallying,  and 
with  the  remaining  four,  which  he  had  held  steadily  in  hand, 
wheeled  furiously  round,  and  with  loosened  rein  and  spur  in 
his  horse's  flanks,  led  them  on  with  overpowering  shock 
against  the  weary  infantry  engaged  with  Fairfax.  Not  for  an 
instant  could  the  Royalists  resist  that  fell  attack.  They 
wavered,  gave  way,  were  cut  through  and  through,  and  fled 
in  all  directions.  One  regiment  alone  preserved  its  ground, 
and  scarcely  a  man  of  it  survived  to  tell  his  courageous  story. 

Charles  behaved  with  the  bravery  which  never  deserted 
him  in  war.  At  the  head  of  the  cavalry  that  remained — 
joined  in  the  instant  by  Rupert's  weary  stragglers — he 
implored  them  to  follow  their  king,  and  stand  the  coming 
shock.  A  terrible  conviction  of  his  hopeless  ruin,  no  doubt, 
10 


146  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

then  flashed  upon  him.  "One  charge  more,"  he  exclaimed 
u  and  we  recover  the  day."  It  was  too  late  ;  Rupert's  cavalry 
were  already  worn  out  by  their  chase,  and  the  rest  had  been 
panic-struck  by  the  charge  of  the  Ironsides.  Never  was  rout 
so  triumphantly  complete.  Two  thousand  men  were  left  dead 
upon  the  field.  The  Royalists  who  were  made  prisoners  were 
five  thousand  foot  and  three  thousand  horse.  There  were  also 
captured  the  whole  of  Charles'  artillery,  eight  thousand 
stand  of  arms,  above  one  hundred  pair  of  colors,  the  royal 
standard,  the  king's  cabinet  of  letters,  his  coaches,  and  the 
whole  spoil  of  his  camp. 

The  first  civil  war  was  decided  by  this  victory ;  and  so,  it 
is  evident,  Cromwell  at  once  perceived,  for  nothing  could 
equal  his  excitement  after  the  day  was  won.  He  led  the  pur- 
suit for  upward  of  twelve  miles,  returned  to  Harborough 
(Haverbrowe  it  was  then  called),  and,  before  taking  rest  or  re- 
freshment, after  toils  that  would  have  worn  down  the  strength 
of  a  score  of  ordinary  men,  took  up  his  pen  and  wrote  news 
of  the  victory  to  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
The  letter  of  the  second  officer  in  command  reached  Parlia- 
ment a  day  before  the  letter  of  the  lord-general.  The  circum- 
stance created T  some  sensation,  and  no  doubt  Cromwell 
intended  that  it  should.  The  news  which  was  to  dismay  the 
Presbyterians  more  than  intelligence  of  a  defeat  would  have 
dismayed  them ;  the  victory  which  was  to  elevate  Vane  and 
the  Independents  into  enthusiastic  strength  and  joy,  should 
fitly  issue  first  from  him.  And  how  the  letter  is  written — 
with  what  an  ill-subdued  effort  from  exultation — in  what  curt 
regal  sentences — with  what  resolute  purpose  against  his  polit- 
ical adversaries  in  the  House  !  It  is  addressed  to  the  Speaker, 
and  bears  date  from  u  Haverbrowe,  June  the  i4th,  1645. 

"SiR, — Being  commanded  by  you  to  this  service,  I  think  myself 
bound  to  aquainte  you  with  the  good  hand  of  God  towards  you  and 
us.  Wee  marched  yesterday  after  the  kinge,  whoe  went  before  us 
from  Daventree  to  Haverbroue,  and  quartered  about  six  miles  from 
him.  This  day  wee  marched  towards  him.  He  drew  out  to  meet  us. 
Both  armies  engaged.  Wee,  after  three  howers  fight,  very  doubtfull, 
at  last  routed  his  armie  ;  killed  and  tooke  about  5000,  very  many 
officers,  butt  of  what  quallitie  wee  yett  know  not.  Wee  took  also 
about  200  carriages,  all  he  had,  and  all  his  gunnes,  beinge  12  in  num- 


OLIVER  CROMWELL.  147 

ber,  whereof  2  were  demie-cannon,  2  demie-culverings,  and  (I  thinke) 
the  rest  sackers.  Wee  pursued — enemie  from  3  miles  short  of  Haver- 
browe  to  nine  beyond,  even  to  sight  of  Leicester,  whither  the  kinge 
fled. 

"  Sir,  this  is  none  other  butt  the  hand  of  God,  and  to  him  alone 
belongs  the  glorie,  wherein  none  are  share  with  him.  The  general 
served  you  with  all  faithfulnesse  and  honour ;  and  the  best  commen- 
dations I  can  give  him  is,  that  I  dare  say  he  attributes  all  to  God,  and 
would  rather  perish  than  assume  to  himselfe  ;  which  is  an  honest  and 
a  thrivinge  way,  and  yett  as  much  for  bravery  may  be  given  to  him  in 
this  action  as  to  a  man.  Honest  men  served  you  faithfully  in  this 
action.  Sir,  they  are  trustie.  I  beseeche  you,  in  the  name  of  God,  not 
to  discourage  them.  I  wish  this  action  may  beget  thankfulnesss  and 
humilite  in  all  that  are  concerned  in  it.  He  that  venters  life  for  the 
libertie  of  his  countrie,  I  wish  he  trust  God  for  the  libertie  of  his  con- 
science, and  you  for  the  libertie  he  fights  for.  In  this  he  rest  whoe  is 
your  most  humble  servent,  "  OLIVER  CROMWELL." 

But  not  in  the  affairs  of  battle  does  the  writer  rest  till  all 
his  work  is  done.  After  Naseby  he  overspread  the  land  with 
his  victorious  forces,  as  with  a  devastating  torrent.  Leicester 
was  immediately  retaken  ;  Taunton,  besieged  by  the  disso- 
lute Goring  and  defended  by  the  valiant  Blake,  was  relieved ; 
Goring  himself  was  beaten,  and  obliged  to  retreat  to  Bridge- 
water.  Here  the  prudence,  not  less  than  the  valor,  of  Crom- 
well, shone  forth  most  eminently.  An  advanced  party  of 
horse,  with  inconsiderate  rashness,  rushed  forward  to  charge 
the  enemy,  when,  with  consummate  presence  of  mind,  he 
checked  them  until  the  whole  of  the  cavalry  had  come  up, 
and  then  putting  himself  at  their  head,  attacked  the  Royalists 
with  such  vigor  and  success,  that  nearly  their  whole  body  of 
foot  became  his  prisoners,  while  he  captured  also  the  greater 
part  of  their  ordnance.  From  this  he  pushed  on  against  the 
town  itself,  which  he  carried  by  storm  against  a  heavy  garri- 
son. While  engaged  in  this  gallant  work,  he  had  a  very 
narrow  escape  from  a  musket-ball  of  the  enemy. — J.  FOR- 
STER. 


148  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

CROMWEU,  BEFORE  THE  DEAD  BODY  OF  CHARGES  I. 
History  relates  that  Cromwell  expressed  a  wish  to  look  upon  the 
King  after  his  execution,  which  he  accordingly  did — "not  in  cruelty, 
or  anger,  or  exultation  ;  but  with  reverential  fear,  as  he  thought  on 
the  judgment  of  God." 

With  stern,  sad  brow,  and  mournful  mien,  and  rigid  lip  com- 
pressed, 
And  head  low  bent  in  brooding  thought  upon  his  mail-clad 

breast, — 

With  all  the  stormy  elements  that  swept  his  mighty  soul, 
Subdued  to  silent,  solemn  awe,  beneath  a  dread  control, — 
He  of  the  iron  heart  and  frame,  and  spirit's  fiery  mould, 
Gazed  on  the  form  that  slept  in  death, — ghastly,  and  stiff,  and 
cold. 

Before  him  lay  his  crowned  king, — his  liege,   whom  he  had 

sworn 

To  honor  with  the  loyalty,  by  faithful  subject  borne  ; 
Whose  sacred  person  he  was  vowed  to  guard  from  every  foe, 
Whose  rightful  throne  his  oaths  were  pledged  to  shield  from 

hostile  blow ; 
And  yet  that  kingly  neck  beneath  the  headsman's  stroke  had 

bent, — 
That  throne  had  crumbled  to  the  ground, — that  sceptre's  power 

was  rent. 

And  he — he  who  with  folded  arms,  and  sorrow's  sternest  air, 
Upon  that  strangely  pallid  face,  so  long  stood  gazing  there, — 
How  could  he  see  the  axe  descend,  and  yet  forbear  to  spring 
With  vengeful  fury  on  the  power  that  dared  assail  his  king  ! 
How  could  he  see  that  monarch's  throne  just  tottering  to  its  fall, 
Nor  interpose  his  stalwart  arm, — his  life's  best  blood, — his  all ! 

Across  his  flashing  eye,  the  mist  of  feeling  gathers  now, — 
His  lips  relax,  and  softer  light  is  falling  o'er  his  brow  ; 
No  weakly,  woman's  nature  moves  the  warrior's  heart, — and  yet, 
The  cheek  made  rugged  by  the  toils  of  war's  wild  strife,  is  wet; 
Strange  man  !  a  conqueror  he  stands  before  the  conquered  here, — 
His  exultation  but  a  groan,  his  triumph  but  a  tear ! 

"Would  God  thou  hadst  not  perished  thus  !    Would  God  thou 

hadst  not  wrought, 
With  suicidal  hand,  the  fate  so  blindly  on  thee  brought ! 


OLIVER   CROMWEI.lv. 


149 


That  thou  by  priestly  craft  hadst  ne'er  submitted  to  be  led, 

And  to  the  majesty  of  law  hadst  bowed  thine  own  proud  head ; 

And  still  maintained  thy  solemn  oaths,  in  reverent  faith  and 

fear ; — 
Thou  hadst  to-day  been  on  thy  throne,  and  not — upon  thy  bier  ! 

"  Thy  people  broke  not  fealty,  till  'twixt  their  cause  and  thine, 
Thy  sacrilegious  sword  had  drawn  the  deep,  dissevering  line, — 
Till  covenanted  rights,  which  blood  of  thousand  heroes  slain, 
Had  flowed  to  win,  were  trampled  down  with  scorn  and  high 

disdain. — 
Till  at  the  shrine  of  lawless  power  thou  sought' st  with  vain 

disguise, 
To  make  a  nation's  fondest  hopes,  the  costly  sacrifice ! 

"With  zeal  I  served  thee  once, — but  when  thine  unrelenting 

hand 

Weighed  its  usurping  force  against  the  freedom  of  the  land, — 
When  holy  faith  and  liberty  within  one  scale  were  laid, 
And  loyalty  and  tyrant-rule  in  balance  were  arrayed, — 
Since  I  must  choose, — with  liberty  and  faith  my  choice  I  fling — 
Keep  my  allegiance  to  my  God,  and  break  it  to  my  king  ! 

"  And  yet  I  fain  had  turned  aside  this  fearful,  fatal  blow ! 
No  vengeance  in  my  heart  required  thy  princely  blood  to  flow  ; 
Thy  form — how  fit  for  length  of  years !  unsilvered  still  thy  hair  ; 
How  mildly  grave  thy  face  !  no  dark,  deceitful  lines  are  there  ; 
But  He  who  marked  thy  devious  course,  hath  smote  thee  with 

His  rod, 
And  here  thou  liest — the  monument  of  an  avenging  God  !  " 

MARGARET  J.  PRESTON. 


IENRY  HUDSON. 


THE  name  of  Henry  Hudson  is  in- 
dissolubly  linked  with  the  waters 
of  the  Western  Continent,  yet  the 
greater  part  of  his  life  is  wrapped 
in  obscurity.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  born  about  A.  D.  1570. 
The  first  certain  knowledge  of 
him  which  we  have  is  his  appoint- 
ment, in  1607,  to  the  command  of 
the  "Hopeful,"  a  vessel  sent  by 
the  Muscovy  Company  on  a  voyage 
"to  discover  the  pole."  On  the 
first  of  May  he  set  sail  accompanied  by  his  son  and  a  crew  of 
twelve  men ;  and  after  various  adventures,  through  icy  seas 
and  regions  intensely  cold,  during  which  he  touched  at  Green- 
land and  coasted  along  the  island  of  Spitsbergen,  he  arrived 
home  September  i5th,  of  the  same  year. 

On  the  22d  of  April,  1608,  Hudson  made  his  second  voy- 
age for  the  Muscovy  Company,  with  his  son  and  a  crew  of 
thirteen  men.  This  time  he  took  the  route  formerly  attempted 
by  Willoughby  and  Barentz,  to  find  a  passage  by  the  north- 
east to  the  pole.  This  second  voyage  was  as  unsuccessful  as 
the  first,  and  he  arrived  in  England  August  26,  1608. 

Not  disheartened,  he  attempted  a  voyage  for  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company,  and  set  sail  from  Amsterdam,  Holland, 
on  March  25,  1609,  with  two  ships.  When  off  the  coast  of 
Nova  Zembla,  the  crew  of  his  own  ship  refused  to  proceed 
farther,  and  Hudson,  turning  about,  stretched  across  the  Atlan- 
tic to  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  thence  southward  to  the 
Chesapeake  Bay,  from  which  he  turned  northward,  touching 
150 


HENRY   HUDSON.  15! 

at  the  Delaware  Bay,  and  readied  the  bay  of  New  York  Sep- 
tember 2,  1609.  He  devoted  a  month  to  the  examination  of 
this  bay,  and  sailed  up  its  river  the  distance  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  miles.  The  river  has  since  received  his  name.  He 
now  put  to  sea,  and  arrived  in  England  November  7,  1609. 

The  next  year,  April  17,  1610,  Hudson  made  his  last  voy- 
age. He  sailed  from  London  in  the  "Discovery,"  fitted  out 
at  the  cost  of  three  English  gentlemen,  to  attempt  the  north- 
west passage,  if  through  any  of  those  American  inlets  which 
Captain  Davis  saw,  but  durst  not  enter  on  the  western  side  of 
Davis'  Strait,  any  passage  might  be  found  to  the  South  Sea. 

Arriving  the  i5th  of  June,  off  Frobisher's  Strait,  Hudson 
thence  proceeded  until  he  arrived  at  the  strait  which  bears 
his  name,  into  which  he  sailed  westward,  as  the  land  and  ice 
would  permit,  till  he  got  into  the  bay,  which  has  ever  since 
borne  the  name  of  "Hudson's  Bay."  He  gave  names  to 
places  as  he  went  along,  and  called  the  country  itself  "New 
Britain." 

Captain  Hudson  sailed  over  three  hundred  miles  into  the 
bay,  being  confident  he  had  found  the  desired  passage  to  the 
South  Sea ;  but  discovering  his  mistake  at  last,  he  concluded 
to  winter  at  the  most  southern  point  of  the  bay,  and  by  the 
loth  of  November,  1610,  his  ship  was  frozen  in,  possibly  near 
Moose  Fort.  The  winter  passed  very  miserably;  the  provis- 
ions were  hardly  sufficient,  and  the  supply  of  game  and  fish 
was  scanty.  With  the  opening  of  the  Spring  of  1611  came 
dissension.  On  the  23d  of  June,  when  he  arrived  at  the  west 
end  of  the  strait,  on  the  way  home,  the  mutineers  entered 
Hudson's  cabin  in  the  night,  seized,  bound  and  put  him  into 
the  small  boat ;  and  with  him  they  put  his  son,  John  Hudson, 
King,  and  seven  men  who  were  sick.  The  boat  was  then 
cut  adrift,  and  they  were  never  seen  again. 

Bylot  was  now  elected  master  of  the  "Discovery,"  and 
while  proceeding  eastward  through  the  strait,  the  provisions 
being  almost  exhausted,  a  party  went  on  shore  to  hunt  game. 
Of  the  party  five  were  killed  by  the  Esquimaux.  Only  a 
miserable  remnant  of  the  crew,  worn  by  famine  and  sickness, 
survived  to  reach  England.  They  were  immediately  impris- 
oned, but  were  shortly  afterwards  released.  Bylot  himself, 


152  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS- 

in  the  following  year,  sailed  with  Button  in  his  voyage  to 
Hudson's  Bay.  It  is  probable  that  the  surviving  mutineers 
were  judged  to  have  expiated  their  crime  by  their  sufferings. 

The  accounts  we  have  of  Henry  Hudson  are  really  very 
vague.  The  river,  the  strait,  the  bay,  and  the  vast  tract  of 
land  which  bear  his  name  have  made  his  memory  imperish- 
able ;  but  in  point  of  fact  not  one  of  these  was  discovered  by 
him.  All  that  can  be  seriously  claimed  for  him  is  that  he 
pushed  his  explorations  further  than  his  predecessors,  and  left 
a  somewhat  imperfect  record  of  them.  It  has  been  conclu- 
sively shown  by  Dr.  Asher  that  the  river,  the  strait,  and  the 
bay  were  marked  in  maps  years  before  the  time  of  Hudson. 

What  Henry  Hudson  really  did  was  to  show,  in  four  sev- 
eral voyages,  that  the  passage  to  Cathay  was  not  the  simple 
thing  that  was  generally  supposed ;  that  there  was  no  strait 
through  the  continent  of  North  America  in  a  low  latitude, 
and  if  there  was  one  in  a  high  latitude,  it  would  not  avail,  on 
account  of  being  ice-bound  nearly  the  whole  year  round.  He 
tried  in  fact  all  the  routes  that  had  been  suggested,  and  these 
having  all  failed,  there  is  little  doubt  that  had  he  lived,  he 
would  have  examined  beyond  Davis'  Strait,  and  have  antici- 
pated Baffin's  discoveries  of  a  few  years  later. 

Henry  Hudson  was  a  bold,  energetic  and  able  man,  zeal- 
ous in  the  cause  to  which  he  had  devoted  himself,  though 
prevented  by  cruel  fortune  from  achieving  merited  success. 

THE  DISCOVERY  OF  THE  HUDSON  RIVER. 

The  tradition  of  Henry  Hudson's  arrival  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Hudson  River,  as  originally  given  by  the  Indians  them- 
selves to  the  Rev.  John  Heckewelder,  for  many  years  a  Mora- 
vian missionary  to  the  Indians  in  Pennsylvania,  runs  as  fol- 
lows: "A  long  time  ago,  when  there  was  no  such  thing  known 
to  the  Indians  as  people  with  a  white  skin,  some  Indians  who 
had  been  out  a  fishing,  and  where  the  sea  widens,  espied,  at  a 
great  distance,  something  remarkably  large,  swimming  or 
floating  on  the  water,  and  such  as  they  had  never  seen  before. 
They,  immediately  returning  to  the  shore,  told  their  country- 
men of  what  they  had  seen,  and  pressed  them  to  go  out  with 
them  and  discern  what  it  might  be.  These  together  hurried 


HENRY   HUDSON.  153 

out,  and  saw,  to  their  great  surprise,  the  phenomenon,  but 
could  not  agree  what  it  might  be,  some  concluding  it  to  be 
an  uncommonly  large  fish  or  other  animal,  while  others  were 
of  opinion  it  must  be  some  very  large  house.  It  was  at 
length  agreed  among  them,  that  as  this  phenomenon  moved 
toward  the  land,  whether  it  was  an  animal  or  not,  it  would 
be  well  to  inform  all  the  Indians  of  what  they  had  seen,  and 
put  them  on  their  guard.  Accordingly  they  sent  runners  to 
carry  the  news  to  their  scattered  chiefs,  that  they  might  send 
off  in  every  direction  for  the  warriors  to  come  in.  These 
now  came  in  numbers,  and  seeing  the  strange  appearance, 
and  that  it  was  actually  moving  forward,  concluded  that  it 
was  a  large  canoe  or  house,  in  which  the  Great  Manitto  [or 
Spirit]  himself  was,  and  that  he  probably  was  corning  to 
visit  them.  By  this  time  the  chiefs  of  the  different  tribes 
were  assembled  on  York  Island,  and  were  counseling  as  to 
the  manner  in  which  they  should  receive  the  Manitto  on  his 
arrival.  They  now  provided  plenty  of  meat  for  a  sacrifice ; 
the  women  were  required  to  prepare  the  best  of  victuals  ;  their 
idols  or  images  were  examined  and  put  in  order ;  and  a  grand 
dance  was  supposed  not  only  to  be  an  agreeable  entertainment 
for  the  Manitto,  but  might,  with  the  addition  of  a  sacrifice, 
contribute  toward  appeasing  him  in  case  he  was  angry. 
The  conjurers  were  also  set  to  work  to  determine  what  the 
meaning  of  this  phenomenon  was,  and  what  the  result  would 
be.  To  these,  and  to  the  chiefs  and  wise  men  of  the  nation, 
men,  women  and  children  were  looking  up  for  advice  and 
protection.  Being  at  a  loss  what  to  do,  between  hope  and 
fear,  and  in  confusion,  a  dance  commenced.  In  the  mean- 
time, fresh  runners  arrived,  declaring  it  to  be  a  great  house 
of  various  colors  that  was  coming,  and  filled  with  living  crea- 
tures. It  now  appeared  certain  that  it  was  their  Manitto 
coming,  bringing  probably  some  new  kind  of  game.  But 
other  runners  now  came  in,  declaring  that  it  was  a  house  of 
various  colors  and  filled  with  people,  but  that  the  people  were 
of  a  different  color  from  themselves ;  that  they  were  also 
dressed  in  a  different  manner  from  them,  and  that  one  in  par- 
ticular appeared  altogether  red.  This  they  thought  must  be 
the  Manitto  himself.  They  were  now  lost  in  admiration. 


154  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

Presently  they  were  hailed  from  the  vessel,  but  in  a  language 
they  could  not  understand,  and  were  able  to  answer  only  by 
a  yell.  Many  were  now  for  running  into  the  woods,  while 
others  pressed  them  to  stay,  in  order  not  to  offend  their  visi- 
tors, who  could  find  them  out  and  might  easily  destroy  them. 
The  house  (or  large  canoe)  stopped,  and  a  smaller  canoe 
now  came  ashore,  bringing  the  red  man  and  some  others  in 
it.  Some  stayed  by  this  canoe  to  guard  it.  The  chiefs  and 
wise  men  formed  a  circle,  into  which  the  red-clothed  man 
and  two  others  approached.  He  saluted  them  with  a  friendly 
countenance,  and  they  returned  the  salute  after  their  manner. 
They  were  amazed  at  the  color  of  their  skin  and  their  dress, 
particularly  at  the  red  man,  whose  clothes  glittered  with 
something  they  could  not  account  for.  He  must  be  the  great 
Manilla,  they  thought ;  but  then  why  should  he  have  a  white 
skin  ?  A  large  elegant  bottle  was  brought  forward  by  one  of  the 
Manilla's  servants,  and  something  poured  from  it  into  a  small 
cup  or  glass,  and  handed  to  the  Manilla.  He  drank  it,  had 
the  cup  refilled,  and  had  it  handed  to  the  chief  next  to  him 
for  him  to  drink.  The  chief  took  it,  smelt  it,  and  passed  it 
to  the  next,  who  did  the  same.  The  cup  passed  in  this  way 
round  the  circle,  untasted,  and  was  about  to  be  returned  to 
the  red-clothed  man,  when  one  of  their  number,  a  spirited 
man  and  a  great  warrior,  jumped  up,  and  harangued  the  mul- 
titude on  the  impropriety  of  returning  the  cup  unemptied. 
'It  was  handed  to  them,'  he  said,  'by  the  Manilla  to  drink 
out  of  as  he  had  done ;  that  to  follow  his  example  would 
please  him,  but  to  return  what  he  had  given  them  might  pro- 
voke him  and  cause  him  to  destroy  them.  And  that  since  he 
believed  it  to  be  for  the  good  of  the  nation  that  the  contents 
offered  them  should  be  drunk,  if  no  one  else  was  willing  to 
drink,  he  would  try  it,  let  the  consequence  be  what  it  would, 
for  it  was  better  for  one  man  to  die  than  that  a  whole  nation 
should  be  destroyed.  He  then  took  the  glass,  smelt  it,  ad- 
dressed them  again,  and  bidding  them  all  farewell,  drank  it. 
All  eyes  were  now  fixed  upon  him,  to  see  what  effect  this  would 
have  upon  him.  He  soon  began  to  stagger,  and  the  women 
cried,  supposing  that  he  had  fits.  Presently  he  rolled  on  the 
ground,  and  they  all  began  to  bemoan  him,  supposing  him  to 


HENRY   HUDSON.  155 

be  dying.  Then  he  fell  asleep,  and  they  thought  now  that  he 
was  dead,  but  presently  they  saw  that  he  was  still  breathing. 
In  a  little  time  he  awoke,  jumped  up,  and  declared  that  he 
never  felt  himself  before  so  happy,  as  after  he  had  drunk  the 
cup.  He  asked  for  more,  which  was  given  to  him,  and  the 
whole  assembly  soon  joined  him,  and  all  became  intoxicated. 
' '  While  the  intoxication  lasted,  the  white  men  kept  them- 
selves in  their  vessel,  and  when  it  was  over,  the  man  with  the 
red  clothes  again  returned  to  them,  bringing  them  presents  of 
beads,  axes,  hoes  and  stockings.  They  soon  now  became 
familiar,  and  talked  by  making  signs.  The  whites  made 
them  understand  that  they  should  now  return  home,  but  the 
next  year  they  should  visit  them  again  with  presents,  and 
stay  with  them  a  while.  But  as  they  could  not  live  without 
eating,  they  should  then  want  a  little  land  to  sow  seeds,  in 
order  to  raise  herbs  to  put  into  their  broth.  Accordingly  a 
vessel  arrived  the  next  season,  when  they  were  much  rejoiced 
to  see  each  other ;  but  the  white  men  laughed  at  them  when 
they  saw  the  axes  and  hoes  hanging  to  their  breasts  as  orna- 
ments, and  the  stockings  used  for  tobacco  pouches.  The 
whites  now  put  handles  in  the  former,  and  cut  down  trees 
and  dug  the  ground  before  their  eyes,  and  showed  them  the 
use  of  the  stockings.  Then  all  the  Indians  laughed,  to  think 
that  they  had  been  ignorant  of  the  use  of  these  things  so  long, 
and  had  carried  these  heavy  articles  hung  around  their  necks. 
They  took  every  white  man  they  saw  for  a  Manitto,  yet  in- 
ferior to  the  Supreme  Manitto;  to  wit,  to  the  one  who  wore 
the  shining  red  clothes.  They  now  became  more  familiar, 
and  the  whites  now  reminded  them  that  they  wanted  some 
land  ;  and  asked  if  they  might  have  as  much  land  as  the  hide 
of  a  bullock  spread  before  them  would  cover.  Their  request 
was  readily  granted.  The  white  men  then  took  a  knife,  and 
beginning  at  one  place  on  the  hide,  cut  it  up  into  a  rope  not 
thicker  than  the  finger  of  a  little  child,  so  that  by  the  time 
this  hide  was  cut  up,  there  was  a  great  heap.  They  then 
took  the  rope  and  drew  it  gently  along  (to  keep  it  from  break- 
ing) in  a  circular  form,  and  took  in  a  large  piece  of  ground. 
The  Indians  were  surprised  at  the  superior  wit  of  the  whites, 
but  did  not  wish  to  contend  with  them  about  a  little  land,  as 


156  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS   AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

they  had  enough.  They  lived  contentedly  together  for  a  long 
time ;  the  whites  from  time  to  time  asking  for  more  land, 
which  was  readily  granted  to  them.  And  thus  they  gradually 
went  higher  and  higher  up  the  Mahicannituck  [or  Hudson] 
River,  until  they  began  to  believe  they  would  soon  want  all 
their  country,  which  proved  at  last  to  be  the  case." 

This  tradition  is  remarkably  confirmed  by  a  Dutch  histo- 
rian, who  wrote  his  history  only  forty -three  years  after  the 
discovery  of  Henry  Hudson.  He  says,  "that  the  Indians  or 
natives  of  the  land,  many  of  whom  are  still  living,  and  with 
whom  I  have  conversed,  declare  freely  that  before  the  arrival 
of  the  Lowland  ship,  the  'Half  Moon,'  in  the  year  1609, 
they,  the  natives,  did  not  know  that  there  were  any  other 
people  in  the  world  than  those  who  were  like  themselves, 
much  less  any  people  who  differed  so  much  in  appearance 
from  them  as  we  did.  When  some  of  them  first  saw  our  ship 
approaching  at  a  distance,  they  did  not  know  what  to  think 
about  her,  but  stood  in  deep  and  solemn  amazement,  wonder- 
ing whether  it  were  a  ghost  or  apparition,  coming  down  from 
heaven,  or  from  hell.  Others  of  them  supposed  her  to  be  a 
strange  fish  or  sea-monster.  When  they  discovered  men  on 
board,  they  supposed  them  to  be  more  like  devils  than  human 
beings.  Thus  they  differed  about  the  ship  and  men.  A 
strange  report  was  spread  about  the  country  concerning  the 
ship  and  visit,  which  created  great  astonishment  and  surprise 
among  the  Indians." 

It  is  said  that  the  tribe  of  Delaware  Indians,  even  to  this 
day,  call  New  York  Mannahattanink,  meaning  thereby,  the 
Island  or  place  of  general  intoxication. 

On  the  morning  of  September  i2th,  while  Hudson  was 
still  at  his  anchorage,  twenty-eight  canoes,  filled  with  men, 
women  and  children,  came  off  to  see  him,  bringing  oysters 
and  clams  to  trade  for  trifles.  These  Indians  had  "great 
tobacco  pipes  of  yellow  copper,  and  pots  of  earth  to  dress  their 
meat  in."  Hudson's  men  seem,  as  usual,  to  have  been  sus- 
picious of  them,  and  though  they  traded  with  them,  none  of 
them  were  allowed  to  come  on  board. 

About  noon,  with  a  heart  full  of  hope,  he  weighed  anchor, 
and  moved  into  the  river.  The  wind  was  not  fair ;  so  that  he 


HENRY  HUDSON.  157 

made  only  two  leagues,  and  again  anchored  for  the  night. 
The  place  off  which  he  lay  is  supposed  to  have  been  what  is 
now  Manhattanville.  The  next  day,  the  wind  being  ahead, 
he  managed,  by  the  help  of  the  flood  tide,  to  pass  up  only 
eleven  miles  higher.  This  brought  him  to  what  is  now 
known  as  Yonkers,  and  again  he  cast  anchor.  In  the  course 
of  this  day  he  was  again  visited  by  Indians,  bringing  pro- 
visions, and  they  seemed  very  friendly  ;  but  his  crew  suspected 
these  also,  and  none  of  them  came  on  board  the  ship. 

The  day  following  the  weather  was  fair,  and  a  fine  breeze 
springing  up  from  the  southeast,  he  passed  up  through  Tap- 
pan  and  Haverstraw  bays ;  "the  river"  (as  the  journal  says) 
"being  a  mile  wide,  and  anchored  at  night  about  thirty-six 
miles  higher,  in  a  region  where  the  land  was  very  high  and 
mountainous. ' '  He  was  now  evidently  in  the  neighborhood 
of  "the  Highlands,"  and  his  anchorage  near  West  Point. 

Hudson  and  his  men  seem  to  have  been  struck  with  the 
wild  and  beautiful  appearance  of  the  country ;  and  strange 
must  have  been  his  feelings,  when  in  his  little  "yacht," 
moored  beneath  the  Highlands,  the  shadows  of  night  fell  over 
him.  He  had  braved  the  tempests  of  the  north,  and  seen  the 
monsters  of  the  ocean ;  but  all  now  was  a  new  world  around 
him.  A  wild  and  beautiful  wilderness  hung  over  him.  Per- 
haps in  the  distance  he  might  see  the  camp-fires  of  straggling 
Indians ;  then  he  might  hear  the  screechings  of  the  owls,  and 
the  scream  of  panthers  in  the  wilderness  above  him,  or  per- 
haps be  startled  by  the  strange  and  tremendous  roar  of  the 
"Naked  Bear"  of  the  Indians. 

The  next  morning  a  mist  hung  over  the  river  and  moun- 
tains until  sunrise,  when  it  cleared  up  with  a  fair  wind.  Just 
as  he  was  weighing  anchor  a  circumstance  happened  which 
afterwards  gave  him  trouble.  The  two  Indians  whom  he  held 
as  hostages  made  their  escape  through  the  port-holes  of  the 
ship  and  swam  to  the  shore,  and  as  soon  as  the  ship  was  under 
way,  they  were  seen  standing  on  the  shore  making  loud  and 
angry  cries,  and  looking  at  them  "with  scornful  looks." 
They  now  moved  up  the  river,  "passing  by  the  high  moun- 
tains, ' '  until,  having  sailed  fifty  miles,  they  came  at  night  in 
sight  of  "other  mountains  which  lie  from  the  river  side." 


158  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

Here  they  found  (as  the  journal  says)  "very  loving  people  and 
very  old  men, ' '  who  treated  them  very  kindly.  Having  cast 
anchor  here  (which  was  probably  near  what  is  now  Catskill 
Landing),  Hudson  sent  the  boat  off,  and  the  men  caught  large 
quantities  of  fine  fish. 

It  was  here,  perhaps,  that  the  pleasant  interview  happened 
between  Hudson  and  an  old  chief  of  the  Indians.  The  story 
is,  that  he  went  on  shore  in  one  of  their  canoes  with  an  old 
man,  who  was  the  chief  of  forty  men  and  seventeen  women. 
These  he  saw  in  a  large  circular  house  made  of  oak  bark.  In 
the  house,  he  discovered  a  large  quantity  of  maize  or  Indian 
corn,  and  beans  of  the  last  year's  growth,  and  near  the  house, 
for  the  purpose  of  drying,  there  lay  enough  to  load  their  ship, 
besides  what  was  growing  in  the  fields.  Upon  his  entering 
the  house,  two  mats  were  immediately  spread  out  to  sit  upon, 
and  food  was  brought  forward  in  large  red  bowls  made  of 
wood.  In  the  meantime,  two  men  were  dispatched  with 
bows  and  arrows  in  search  of  game.  Soon  after,  they  returned 
with  a  pair  of  pigeons  ;  then  they  killed  a  fat  dog,  and  skinned 
it  in  great  haste  for  their  guest,  with  shells  which  they  had 
got  out  of  the  water.  After  the  feast,  they  supposed  that 
Hudson  would  remain  all  night  with  them.  But  upon  his 
showing  signs  of  departure,  the  hospitable  old  man  became 
very  uneasy  ;  and  his  people,  supposing  that  the  guest  might 
be  leaving  because  he  was  afraid  of  them,  took  all  their 
arrows,  and  breaking  them  in  pieces,  cast  them  into  the  fire. 

The  quantities  of  fish  taken  the  evening  before  now 
induced  Hudson  (the  next  morning  being  warm  and  fair)  to 
send  some  of  the  men  out  upon  another  fishing  party.  This 
time,  however,  they  were  not  so  successful ;  for  the  natives 
had  been  there  all  night  in  their  canoes.  In  the  mean- 
time, the  Indians  flocked  on  board  the  ship,  bringing  In- 
dian corn,  pumpkins  and  tobacco.  The  whole  day  was 
consumed  in  trading  with  these  friendly  people,  and  filling 
the  water  casks  with  fresh  water.  Towards  night,  he  again 
set  sail,  and,  passing  some  six  miles  higher  up,  found  the 
water  shoal  and  cast  anchor.  He  was  now  probably  near  the 
spot  where  the  city  bearing  his  name  has  since  grown  up. 
The  weather  was  warm,  and  Hudson  determined  to  take 


HENRY   HUDSON.  159 

advantage  of  the  cool  hours  of  the  morning.  At  dawn,  there- 
fore, the  next  day  he  weighed  anchor,  and  ran  up  the  river 
"six  leagues  higher;"  but  finding  shoals  and  small  islands 
in  the  middle  of  the  river,  he  once  more  stopped.  As  night 
came  on,  the  vessel  drifted  near  the  shore  and  grounded ;  but 
they  ' '  layed  out  their  small  anchor  and  heaved  her  off  again.' ' 
In  a  little  time,  she  was  aground  again  in  the  channel ;  but 
when  the  flood-tide  rose  she  floated  off,  and  then  they  anchored 
for  the  night,  it  is  thought,  somewhere  near  Castleton. 

The  next  day  was  fair,  and  he  ' '  rode  still ' '  all  day.  In  the 
afternoon,  he  went  ashore  with  "an  old  savage,  a  governor 
of  the  country,  who  carried  him  to  his  house,  and  made  him 
good  cheer."  With  the  flood-tide,  about  noon  on  the  follow- 
ing day,  he  ran  up  "two  leagues  above  the  shoals,"  and  cast 
anchor  again  in  eight  fathoms  of  water.  The  natives  now 
came  on  board  in  crowds,  bringing  grapes,  pumpkins,  beaver 
and  other  skins,  for  which  the  sailors  readily  gave  them 
beads,  knives,  and  hatchets. 

Here  Hudson  seems  to  have  had  some  misgivings  as  to  the 
depth  of  the  river  above  him.  He  had  now  been  seven  or 
eight  days  in  reaching  this  point,  and  his  ship  had  been 
aground  and  his  soundings  shallow  more  than  once  in  the 
last  three  days.  The  next  day,  therefore  (the  morning  of  the 
2oth),  he  sent  the  mate  with  four  men  in  the  boat  to  explore 
the  river  and  take  soundings.  They  were  gone  nearly  the 
whole  day,  and  returned  with  the  report  that  ' '  the  channel 
was  very  narrow  ; ' '  that  two  leagues  above,  they  found  only 
two  fathoms'  water,  though  in  some  places  there  was  a  better 
depth.  The  next  morning  they  were  about  starting  again,  to 
explore  the  depth  and  breadth  of  the  stream  (for  the  wind 
was  fair,  and  Hudson  was  anxious  to  move  up  with  the  ship), 
but  were  prevented  by  the  great  crowds  of  Indians  that  came 
flocking  on  board.  They  seem  again  to  have  been  afraid  of 
these  men,  and  unwilMng  to  leave  the  ship  while  they  were 
there.  Finding  that  he  was  not  likely  to  make  any  progress 
on  that  day,  Hudson  sent  the  carpenter  ashore  to  make  a  new 
foreyard  for  the  ship,  and  determined  with  his  men,  in  the 
meantime,  to  make  an  experiment  with  some  of  these  Indians, 
that  he  might  learn  if  they  were  treacherous. 


l6o  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

This  experiment  was  a  strange  one ;  it  was  neither  more 
nor  less  than  intoxicating  some  of  the  Indian  chiefs,  and 
thereby  throwing  them  "off  their  guard."  He  therefore  took 
several  of  them  down  into  the  cabin,  and  gave  them  plenty  of 
wine  and  brandy,  until  they  were  all  merry.  The  poor  women 
looked  innocently  on,  for  we  are  told  particularly  of  the  wife 
of  one  of  these  merry  chiefs,  who  "sate  in  the  cabin  as  mod- 
estly as  any  of  our  country-women  would  do  in  a  strange 
place."  The  men  drank  plentifully,  and  presently  one  of 
them  became  so  drunk  that  he  fell  asleep.  The  rest  were 
now  frightened,  supposing  him  to  be  poisoned,  and  imme- 
diately took  to  their  canoes  and  pushed  for  the  shore.  They 
did  not  forget  the  poor  man  on  board  ;  for  some  of  them  soon 
returned,  bringing  long  strings  of  beads,  which  they  hoped 
the  whites  would  accept,  and  release  their  poor  countryman. 

The  poor  Indian  slept  soundly  all  night,  and  the  next  day, 
when  his  countrymen  came  to  see  him,  they  were  rejoiced  to 
find  him  well.  They  returned  to  the  shore,  and  about  three 
o'clock  came  again,  bringing  beads  and  tobacco,  which  they 
gave  to  Hudson.  One  of  them  made  a  long  oration,  and 
showed  him  all  the  country  round  about  Anxious  still 
farther  to  show  him  their  gratitude,  they  now  sent  one  of 
their  number  ashore,  who  presently  returned  with  a  large 
platter  of  venison,  dressed  in  their  own  style,  and  placed  it 
before  Hudson,  that  he  might  eat  with  them.  After  this, 
they  all  "made  him  reverence"  and  departed. 

In  the  morning,  before  all  this  scene  took  place,  Hudson 
had  again  started  the  mate  with  the  four  men  to  sound  the 
river.  At  ten  o'clock  at  night  he  came  back  in  a  hard  shower 
of  rain,  bringing  a  bad  report  once  more.  He  had  ascended 
the  river  eight  or  nine  leagues,  and  found  only  seven  feet 
of  water  and  very  irregular  soundings. 

Disappointed  in  not  finding  this  the  passage  to  the  East, 
Hudson  was  cheered  by  the  reflection  that  he  had  passed  up 
this  noble  stream  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  and  dis- 
covered a  beautiful  and  fertile  region,  for  the  future  enterprise 
of  his  employers.  He  now  prepared  for  his  return. 

About  mid-day  on  the  23d,  he  commenced  retracing  his 
way,  and  went  down  the  river  only  six  miles,  the  wind  being 


HENRY  HUDSON.  l6l 

ahead.  On  the  24th,  he  ran  down  twenty-four  miles  farther 
and  anchored  (it  is  supposed  between  Athens  and  Hudson). 
Here  he  was  detained  four  days  by  head  winds ;  but  the  time 
was  spent  pleasantly  and  profitably  in  surveying  the  country. 
Some  of  the  men  went  on  shore  gathering  chestnuts,  and 
others  strolled  along  the  bank  making  their  observations. 
They  found  "good  ground  for  corn  and  other  garden  herbs, 
with  a  good  store  of  goodly  oaks  and  walnut-trees  and  chestnut- 
trees,  yew-trees  and  trees  of  sweet  wood,  in  great  abundance, 
and  great  stores  of  slate  for  houses,  and  other  good  stones." 
While  they  lay  at  this  anchorage,  they  had  a  visit  from  one 
who  considered  himself  at  least  an  old  friend.  On  the  morn- 
ing of  the  26th,  two  canoes  came  up  from  the  place  where 
they  met  "the  loving  people"  (Catskill  Landing),  and  in  one 
of  them  was  the  old  chief  who  had  been  made  drunk  above, 
and  given  so  much  alarm  to  his  countrymen.  The  friendship 
of  this  old  man  must  have  been  strong,  for  he  seems  to  have 
followed  them  even  to  the  Catskill  mountains.  He  brought 
now  another  old  chief  with  him,  who  presented  strings  of 
beads  to  Hudson,  and  "showed  him  all  the  country  there- 
about, as  though  it  were  at  his  command."  The  old  man's 
wife  was  along,  with  three  other  Indian  women.  Hudson 
was  very  kind  to  them,  invited  them  all  to  dine  with  him, 
after  dinner  gave  them  presents,  and  they  departed  begging 
that  he  would  visit  them  as  he  passed  by,  for  the  place  where 
they  lived  was  only  two  leagues  off. 

The  wind  being  north  on  the  morning  of  the  27th,  they 
set  sail  and  moved  onward.  As  they  passed  the  old  man's 
home,  he  came  off  again,  hoping  they  would  cast  anchor,  and 
go  ashore  and  eat  with  him.  The  wind  was  too  fair  and 
inviting  for  them  to  listen  to  his  invitation,  and  he  left  them, 
"being  very  sorrowful  for  their  departure."  Toward  night 
they  reached  the  neighborhood  of  what  is  known  as  Red 
Hook  Landing,  and  there  had  fine  fishing.  For  the  two  next 
days  his  progress  was  very  slow,  for  on  the  morning  of  the 
3Oth,  we  are  told,  his  ship  was  anchored  off  "the  northern- 
most of  the  mountains, ' '  meaning,  I  suppose,  the  head  of  the 
Highlands.  Here,  again,  the  natives  came  on  board  in  a 
friendly  manner.  Detained  for  a  day  by  head  winds,  he 
ii 


1 62  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

observed  the  country  closely.  The  description  of  the  land 
near  them  is  very  minute,  and  the  town  of  Newburgh  has 
arisen,  perhaps,  upon  the  very  spot  of  which  the  journal 
speaks.  "This"  (says  the  journal)  "is  a  very  pleasant  place 
to  build  a  town  on.  The  road  is  very  near,  and  very  good  for 
all  winds,  save  an  east-northeast  wind."  Here,  too,  they 
were  struck  with  the  strange  appearance  of  some  of  the  moun- 
tains. "The  mountains  look  as  if  some  metal  or  mineral 
were  in  them.  For  the  trees  that  grow  on  them  were  all 
blasted,  and  some  of  them  barren,  with  few  or  no  trees  on 
them.  The  people  brought  a  stone  aboard  like  to  emery  (a 
stone  used  by  glaziers  to  cut  glass),  it  would  cut  iron  or  steele, 
yet  being  bruised  small  and  water  put  to  it,  it  made  a  color 
like  black  lead,  glistering.  It  is  also  good  for  painters'  colors.' ' 
On  the  ist  of  October,  with  a  fair  wind  he  sailed  through  the 
Highlands,  and  reached  as  far  as  the  neighborhood  of  Stony 
Point,  when  being  becalmed  he  cast  anchor. 

No  sooner  had  they  anchored,  than  the  natives  were 
crowding  aboard,  astonished  at,  and  admiring  everything  they 
saw.  They  came  trading  with  skins,  but  these  could  not  pro- 
cure all  that  they  desired.  One  poor  fellow,  therefore,  was 
prompted  to  steal.  He  swept  his  canoe  lightly  under  the 
stern,  crawled  up  the  rudder  into  the  cabin  window,  and  stole 
a  pillow  with  some  articles  of  clothing.  The  mate  saw  him 
as  he  moved  off  with  his  canoe,  shot  at  him  and  killed  him. 
The  rest  now  fled  in  terror,  some  taking  to  their  canoes,  and 
some  plunging  into  the  stream.  The  ship's  boat  was  manned 
at  once,  and  sent  to  secure  the  stolen  articles.  These  were 
easily  obtained ;  but  as  the  boat  came  back,  one  of  the  Indians 
who  was  swimming  in  the  water  took  hold  of  her,  endeavor- 
ing to  overturn  her.  The  cook  now  drew  a  sword,  and  with 
one  blow  cut  off  his  hand.  The  poor  creature  sank  to  the 
bottom — never  to  rise  again.  They  now  returned  to  the  ship, 
got  under  way  immediately,  and  passing  down  six  miles 
farther,  anchored,  near  dark,  off  the  mouth  of  Croton  River, 
near  the  entrance  into  Tappan  Sea. 

The  next  day,  with  a  fair  wind,  they  sailed  twenty-one 
miles,  which  must  have  brought  them  somewhere  near  the 
head  of  Manhattan  Island.  Here  they  soon  found  themselves 


HENRY  HUDSON.  163 

in  trouble.  The  two  Indians  who  had  escaped  from  the  ship 
on  their  way  up,  angry  and  indignant  at  their  captivity,  had 
roused  a  number  of  their  countrymen  along  the  shores  of  the 
river,  and  they  were  now  assembled  near  this  point  to  attack 
Hudson  on  his  return.  A  canoe  appeared,  in  which  was  one 
of  those  who  had  escaped,  and  many  others  armed  with  bows 
and  arrows.  Hudson  suspected  something  from  their  appear- 
ance, and  none  of  them  were  allowed  to  come  on  board. 
Presently,  two  canoes  filled  with  armed  men  dropped  under 
the  stern,  and  the  attack  was  commenced  with  their  bows  and 
arrows ;  six  muskets  were  fired  from  the  ship,  and  three  In- 
dians fell  dead.  The  Indians  on  the  land,  marking  what  was 
done,  were  now  exasperated  the  more :  they  moved  down  to 
the  shore  in  a  solid  body  ("about  one  hundred  of  them"), 
and  made  ready  with  their  bows  as  the  ship  passed  slowly  on. 
A  cannon  was  now  fired  from  the  ship  upon  them,  and  two 
more  Indians  fell.  The  rest  fled  for  the  woods,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  nine  or  ten  desperate  men,  who  were  resolved  upon 
revenge.  These  jumped  into  a  canoe,  and  advanced  to  meet 
the  ship.  The  cannon  was  again  discharged,  the  canoe  "shot 
through, ' '  and  another  man  killed  ;  at  the  same  time  the  men 
fired  again  with  their  muskets,  and  killed  three  or  four  men. 
Thus  the  fight  ended  with  the  loss  of  nine  Indians.  The  ship 
now  moved  on  her  way,  and  at  the  distance  of  "two  leagues" 
dropped  anchor  under  the  shores  of  what  is  now  known  as 
Hoboken.  The  next  day  was  stormy ;  but  the  morning  of 
the  4th  dawned  upon  them  with  a  fair  wind.  Hudson  again 
weighed  anchor,  passed  through  the  bay,  and,  with  all  sails 
set,  put  out  to  sea  once  more. 


SAMUEL  DE  CHAM  PLAIN 


SAMUEL  DE  CHAMPLAIN  was 
born  in  Brouage,  in  the  Province 
of  Saintonge,  in  France,  about  the 
year  1567.  He  was  of  a  noble 
family.  In  his  early  life  he  served 
in  the  French  navy,  becoming 
quartermaster.  He  was  pensioned 
and  attached  to  the  court  of  Henry 
IV.  Champlain  gained  his  experi- 
ence in  navigation  from  his  uncle, 
who  was  a  pilot-general  of  the  Spanish  fleets,  and  with  whom 
he  frequently  sailed.  In  about  1600,  he  commanded  a  vessel 
called  the  uSt.  Julien,"  and  in  her  made  a  voyage  to  the 
West  Indies,  of  which  he  kept  a  diary.  This  was  discovered 
about  1860  and  published  in  1870  by  the  Laval  University. 

After  an  absence  of  two  years  Champlain  returned  to 
France,  when  it  was  decided  to  prosecute  the  discoveries  of 
Jacques  Carrier  in  Canada.  M.  de  Chastes,  Governor  of 
Canada,  engaged  Champlain  in  his  service.  On  March  15, 
1603,  he  set  sail  for  America.  They  sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  to  the  Sault  St.  Louis ;  this  was  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Hochelaga,  an  eastern  suburb  of  Montreal.  After  making 
many  inquiries  from  the  natives,  and  carefully  examining  the 
banks  of  the  river,  he  returned,  in  August,  to  France.  It  was 
now  that  he  published  his  first  volume,  entitled,  "Des 
Sauvages."  M.  de  Chastes  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Sieur 
de  Monts.  He  engaged  Champlain  as  his  pilot  in  another 
voyage.  They  sailed  March  7,  1604,  an^  landed  in  Acadia, 
May  6th.  Champlain  spent  the  winter  in  exploring  the 
country,  going  as  far  as  Cape  Cod.  They  founded  the  settle- 
164 


SAMUEL  DE   CHAMPLAIN.  165 

ment  on  the  island  of  St.  Croix,  which  is  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  which  divides  the  United  States  from  New  Brunswick. 

In  October,  1607,  Champlain  returned  to  France.  His 
third  voyage  to  America  he  made  in  the  following  year.  It 
was  on  this  trip  that  he  founded  Quebec  upon  the  site  of  an 
Indian  village,  Stadacona.  Here  he  erected  a  barracks  and 
houses,  cultivating  the  surrounding  land,  and  sowing  wheat 
and  rye.  A  plot  was  made  by  some  of  his  followers  to  assas- 
sinate him;  but  it  was  fortunately  discovered,  one  of  the 
conspirators  being  hanged  and  the  remainder  condemned  to 
the  galleys.  Champlain  had  heard  an  account  from  the 
Indians  of  a  wonderful  inland  sea,  dotted  with  islands,  lying 
to  the  south  of  the  St.  L/awrence.  As  soon  as  the  winter 
snows  had  melted,  he  set  out  with  the  hope,  of  finding  it. 
Only  two  of  his  own  countrymen  accompanied  him ;  but  there 
were  sixty  Indian  warriors  and  twenty-four  canoes  with  them. 
After  a  toilsome  passage  up  the  rapids,  they  entered  the  lake 
to  which  he  gave  his  own  name.  In  1609  he  joined  in  assist- 
ing the  Hurons  and  Algonquins  to  defeat  their  common 
enemy,  the  Iroquois.  He  hoped  by  this  to  secure  to  France, 
as  allies,  those  Indians  for  whom  he  fought  Champlain, 
with  the  aid  of  his  arquebuse  and  the  armor  in  which  he 
was  clad,  contributed  largely  to  the  victory  of  the  Hurons  and 
Algonquins.  He  shot  two  of  the  Iroquois  chiefs  dead,  and  the 
sound  of  fire-arms  so  alarmed  their  followers  that  they  fled  in 
terror,  leaving  all  behind.  The  conquerors  returned  to  Quebec 
with  their  girdles  adorned  by  fifty  Iroquois  scalps.  The  Iro- 
quois through  this  became  the  friends  and  allies  of  the  English. 

Champlain  was  now  summoned  to  return  to  France,  but 
remained  there  only  for  a  short  period.  On  coming  again  to 
Canada,  he  joined  the  Montagnez  Indians  against  the  Iroquois. 
In  this  fight  Champlain  was  wounded  with  an  arrow.  On  the 
death  of  Henry  IV.,  the  interest  of  De  Monts  in  Canada 
ended.  Charles  de  Bourbon  succeeded  him,  and  appointed 
Champlain  his  lieutenant.  After  this  Champlain  frequently 
crossed  the  Atlantic.  To  the  end  he  remained  a  bitter  enemy 
of  the  Iroquois.  He  discovered  Lake  Ontario,  and  explored 
along  the  western  boundaries  of  Northern  New  York.  He 
was  the  first  explorer  of  the  Thousand  Islands. 


166  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

In  July,  1629,  Quebec  was  taken  by  the  English,  and  Cham- 
plain  was  conveyed  to  France.  But  he  was  once  more  able 
to  return  to  Canada,  as  Governor-General,  that  country  being 
restored  to  France,  by  the  treaty  of  St.  Gerrnains,  1632.  He 
was  eager  in  every  way  to  promote  the  interest  of  the  Christian 
religion,  and  that  the  Indians  should  be  brought  under  its 
influence.  He  established  schools  and  a  college  at  Quebec ; 
but  before  its  completion  he  died  in  that  city,  on  Christmas 
day,  1635. 

Champlain  was  a  shrewd,  calm  and  patient  master  of  men. 
Though  he  was  credulous,  he  possessed  an  uncommon  share 
of  penetration.  He  could  work  with  determined  Calvinist 
and  subtle  Jesuit  alike ;  he  harmonized  the  conflicting  interests 
of  fur  traders  and  colonists  to  a  surprising  degree,  and  his 
zeal  for  the  spread  of  religion  was  so  great  that  he  used  to 
say,  u  that  the  salvation  of  one  soul  was  of  more  value  than 
the  conquest  of  an  empire." 

DISCOVERY  OF  LAKE  CHAMPLAIN. 

After  the  settlement  of  Quebec,  it  was  deemed  by  the 
French  colonists  wise  policy  to  keep  on  friendly  terms  with 
the  neighboring  Indians,  among  whom  were  the  Algonquins, 
Les  Montagnez  and  Hurons.  At  the  same  time  the  Indians 
were  glad  to  avail  themselves  of  the  alliance  of  their  new 
neighbors,  who,  they  thought,  would  render  them  efficient 
service  in  their  attacks  upon  their  powerful  enemies,  the 
Iroquois.  Having  secured  the  friendship  of  the  whites,  it 
was  not  long  before  they  obtained  their  consent  to  unite  with 
them  in  vigorous  measures  against  their  common  enemy. 

A  party  of  Indians,  in  company  with  a  few  of  the  French- 
men of  Quebec,  set  out,  in  1609,  upon  an  expedition  against 
the  terrible  Iroquois.  Samuel  Champlain  was  one  of  their 
number.  He  was  induced  to  join  them  with  the  hope  that, 
by  so  doing,  he  might  be  able  to  humble  the  proud  Iroquois, 
and  then,  by  negotiating  a  peace,  bring  all  the  tribes  of 
Indians  in  Canada  into  a  friendly  league  with  the  French.  If 
this  could  have  been  accomplished,  it  would  have  been  highly 
advantageous  to  the  French.  Champlain,  however,  found 
that  it  was  much  more  easy  to  project  the  plan  than  to  carry 


SAMUEL  DE  CHAMPLAIN.  167 

it  into  execution.  The  confederated  Iroquois,  otherwise  known 
as  the  Five  Nations,  or  sometimes  as  the  Six  Nations,  who 
had  held  in  check  and  were  the  terror  of  the  tribes  for  a 
space  of  three  hundred  miles  around  them,  were  not  to  be 
subdued.  Another  European  nation,  who  had  watched  with 
an  eagle  eye  the  advancing  power  of  the  French  in  the  New 
World,  was  to  enter  into  league  with  the  Iroquois  for  the  pur- 
pose of  arresting  the  farther  progress  of  France.  This,  how- 
ever, was  hidden  from  Champlain.  He,  no  doubt,  was 
determined  to  exert  himself,  to  the  utmost  of  his  ability,  for 
the  accomplishment  of  the  object  he  had  in  view.  He  accord- 
ingly embarked  with  his  Indian  allies  at  Quebec. 

The  vessel  proceeded  slowly  up  the  broad  and  noble  St. 
Lawrence.  They  passed  the  mouth  of  the  Chaudiere  River 
on  the  south  ;  then  the  River  St.  Anne,  which  came  in  on 
the  north ;  then  the  Becancour  and  the  St.  Maurice,  nearly 
opposite  each  other.  Here  the  St.  Lawrence  gradually 
widened  into  a  broad  lake,  now  called  Lake  St.  Peter,  twenty- 
six  miles  long,  and  containing  several  islands.  They  sailed 
through  the  whole  length  of  this  lake,  passed  by  the  islands, 
and  then  entered  a  river  which  came  in  on  the  south.  This 
was  the  Iroquois,  now  known  as  the  St.  John's  or  the  Sorrelle 
River.  It  unites  the  waters  of  the  St.  Lawrence  with  those 
of  Lake  Champlain.  They  had  not  proceeded  far  into  this 
river  before  a  discovery  was  made  which  convinced  Champlain 
of  the  unprincipled  duplicity  of  his  allies ;  this  was  the 
discovery  of  impassable  rapids.  His  allies,  if  they  had  been 
true,  would  have  given  him  information  of  these  rapids  ;  but, 
instead  of  that,  they  had  carefully  concealed  them  from  him. 
His  vessel  could  proceed  no  farther.  He  therefore  sent  her 
back  to  Quebec.  Himself  and  two  faithful  Frenchmen,  who 
would  not  forsake  him,  determined  to  press  on,  notwith- 
standing the  secrecy  and  deceitfulness  of  the  Indians.  They 
carried  their  canoes  around  the  falls,  and  then  made  prepara- 
tions for  their  night  encampment.  The  Indians,  according 
to  their  custom,  sent  out  one  of  their  number  to  reconnoitre 
and  ascertain  whether  any  enemies  were  in  sight.  He 
returned  without  making  any  discoveries.  They  then  pre- 
pared for  sleep,  without  the  precaution  to  appoint  a  guard. 


168  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

Chainplain  rebuked  them  for  stupidity  and  carelessness  ;  but 
all  the  reply  they  gave  was,  that  those  who  were  fatigued  all 
day  needed  sleep  at  night.  But  as  they  approached  nearer 
the  settlements  of  their  enemies,  they  redoubled  their  vigi- 
lance. They  traveled  only  at  night,  and  made  no  fires  in  the 
day,  lest  the  columns  of  smoke  might  reveal  their  retreat. 

Champlain  was  delighted  with  the  beautiful  and  romantic 
appearance  of  the  uncultivated  regions  through  which  he 
passed.  The  islands  were  well  stocked  with  deer  and  other 
game,  whilst  the  river  abounded  with  fish.  They  found  it  a 
pleasant  amusement  to  hunt  and  fish  in  order  to  supply  them- 
selves with  food.  On  this  excursion,  Champlain  obtained 
considerable  information  of  Indian  customs  and  character. 
He  was  especially  interested  in  the  implicit  confidence  which 
they  reposed  in  the  mysterious  powers  of  their  sorcerers  or 
powwows.  One  of  these  was  in  their  company,  who  took 
occasion,  at  one  of  their  encampments,  to  go  through  with  his 
superstitious,  terrific  incantations.  After  this  they  inquired 
for  several  days,  of  Champlain,  if  he  had  not  dreamed  of 
seeing  the  Iroquois.  He  told  them  no.  At  this  they  were 
greatly  troubled,  and  made  no  attempt  to  conceal  their 
anxiety  from  him.  Under  the  impression  that  it  would  afford 
them  relief,  and  might  encourage  them  to  deeds  of  noble 
daring  in  the  coming  conflict,  he  finally  told  them  that,  in  a 
dream,  he  had  seen  their  hated  enemy,  the  Iroquois,  drowning 
in  a  lake,  but  that  he  placed  no  confidence  in  it.  They, 
however,  were  filled  with  joy.  They  had  now  no  doubt  of 
victory.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  powwow,  in  his  incan- 
tations, had  associated  Champlain,  dreaming  of  the  Iroquois, 
with  a  favorable  termination  of  the  present  expedition  ;  hence 
their  enthusiasm  when  he  informed  them  that  he  had  seen,  in 
a  dream,  their  enemy  overwhelmed  in  the  waters  of  a  lake. 
After  this  they  pressed  on  with  high  hopes. 

They  soon  left  the  spot  where  St.  John's  now  stands,  and 
the  Isle  aux  Noix,  passed  by  Rouse's  Point,  and  entered  upon 
the  romantic  Lake  Champlain.  For  a  hundred  and  ten  miles 
did  they  paddle  their  light  canoes  over  this  beautiful  sheet, 
passing  by  places  which,  since  then,  have  been  consecrated  by 
important  national  events,  as  classic  localities  in  the  history 


SAMUEIv  DB  CHAMPLAIN.  169 

of  the  country.  On  the  south,  Champlain  connects  with  Lake 
George,  which  is  greatly  admired  for  the  transparency  of  its 
waters  and  the  extreme  beauty  of  its  shores.  Pebbles  and 
shells  on  its  bottom  can  be  seen  at  a  great  depth.  It  seems 
almost  like  sailing  in  the  air.  Between  these  two  lakes  there 
are  rapids.  The  intention  of  the  allies  was  to  pass  these  rapids, 
make  an  irruption  into  the  quiet  and  romantic  valleys  of  the 
Iroquois,  and  suddenly  pounce  upon  one  of  their  villages. 
But  their  plan  was  thwarted  by  the  unexpected  appearance  of 
their  enemy,  at  ten  o'clock  at  night,  upon  the  lake.  When 
they  met  both  parties  were  surprised  and  elated,  which  they 
expressed  in  loud  shouts.  As  it  was  contrary  to  their  practice 
to  fight  upon  the  water  when  they  could  reach  the  land,  the 
two  parties  made  directly  for  the  shore. 

The  allies  immediately  placed  themselves  in  a  position  for 
battle,  by  concealing  themselves  behind  trees  and  stumps,  or 
whatever  else  offered  them  safety,  and  then  sent  a  messenger 
to  their  enemy,  to  know  whether  they  would  fight  that  night. 
This  certainly  was  a  somewhat  singular  procedure.  Why 
did  they  not  at  once  attack  the  Iroquois,  and  let  them  exhibit 
by  their  conduct  whether  they  were  ready  for  battle  ?  Their 
enemy  sent  them  word  that  the  night  was  too  dark ;  they 
must,  therefore,  wait  till  day.  Early  the  next  morning 
Champlain  stationed  his  two  Frenchmen,  with  a  few  Indians, 
in  the  woods,  so  as  to  attack  the  enemy  in  flank.  Each  party 
consisted  of  about  two  hundred  men,  all  confident  of  victory. 
They  were  all  armed  with  bows  and  arrows,  except  the 
French,  who  alone  had  fire-arms,  and  who  were  expected  by 
the  allies  to  determine  the  victory.  They  showed  Champlain 
who  were  chiefs  among  their  enemy,  and  advised  him  to  fire 
upon  them.  They  were  distinguished  by  their  head-dress  of 
feathers  being  higher  and  more  showy  than  the  others.  Their 
plan  of  attack  was  original  and  ingenious.  The  allies  rushed 
out  from  their  entrenchments,  and  ran  two  hundred  feet 
towards  the  enemy ;  they  then  parted  to  the  right  and  left, 
making  an  opening  in  the  center.  Through  this  opening 
Champlain,  who  was  in  the  rear,  advanced  and  took  the 
command. 

This  sudden  appearance  of  a  singular-looking,  pale-faced 


170  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

stranger,  with  a  kind  of  weapon  which  they  had  never  seen 
before,  created  great  astonishment  among  the  Iroquois. 
Whilst  they  were  wondering  at  this  white-skinned  stranger, 
suddenly  a  flash  was  seen,  and  a  loud  report  heard,  followed 
by  a  cloud  of  smoke.  It  was  the  discharge  of  an  arquebuse 
from  the  spot  where  Champlain  had  placed  four  of  his  men. 
When  the  Iroquois  saw,  as  the  effect  of  this  new  mode  of 
warfare,  two  of  their  chiefs  slain  and  a  third  badly  wounded, 
their  amazement  was  extreme.  The  allies  rent  the  air  with 
their  wild  shouts,  and  let  fly  a  shower  of  arrows.  Champlain 
followed  up  his  success  with  another  discharge  of  his  fire-spit- 
ting and  ball-hurling  weapons.  The  enemy  were  terrified ; 
they  turned  and  fled  in  dismay.  They  were  hotly  pursued  by 
the  victorious  army,  and  some  of  them  were  taken  prisoners. 
The  corn  which  the  Iroquois  left  behind  them  in  their  flight 
furnished  a  timely  supply  to  their  conquerors,  who  were 
reduced  to  great  need.  Two  hours  did  they  pass  upon  the 
field  of  battle  in  singing,  dancing  and  feasting. 

So  successful  had  been  the  conflict  that  not  one  of  their 
number  had  been  slain,  and  only  a  few  wounded.  They  made 
no  attempt  to  follow  up  their  advantage.  It  was  the  custom 
with  those  tribes  for  the  conquerors,  as  well  as  the  conquered, 
to  retreat  after  an  engagement;  and  sometimes  the  victors 
would  exhibit  as  much  disorder  in  their  retreat  as  though  the 
enemy  was  shouting  in  full  pursuit.  One  of  their  prisoners 
they  subjected  to  horrible  tortures,  to  which  Champlain  soon 
put  an  end.  The  victorious  party  returned  to  Quebec. 
In  September  following,  Champlain  sailed  for  France. — J. 
FROST. 


i  i  AI2  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 

UOS  &$i^&'-*^~r~'i  call. 


GENERAL  PUTNAM  J2T  BUltKER  HILL. 


GENERAL  ISRAEL  PUTNAM 


ISRAEL  PUTNAM  was  one  of  the 
most  striking  figures  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution.  He  was  a  very 
Paladin  in  executing  the  commands 
of  his  superior  officer.  He  was 
born  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  on 
the  7th  of  January,  1718.  As  he 
grew  up,  he  became  distinguished 
for  feats  of  skill  and  strength  ;  and 
in  leaping,  running  and  wrestling 
had  no  superiors.  In  1739,  he 

married,  and  shortly  after  emigrated  to  Pomfret,  Connecticut, 
where  he  engaged  in  farming.  Here,  also,  he  pursued  and 
shot,  in  her  cave,  the  she-wolf  which  had  so  long  been  a 
terror  to  the  neighborhood. 

In  1755,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  French  war,  Putnam  com- 
manded a  Connecticut  company  in  the  expedition  against 
Crown  Point ;  and  in  1757,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  Major. 
In  1758,  the  British  general,  Abercrombie,  attacked  Ticon- 
deroga,  which  was  garrisoned  by  5,000  French  troops. 
Putnam  was  in  the  van,  attended  by  Lord  Howe,  when,  upon 
the  first  fire  of  the  enemy,  Howe  fell,  universally  beloved 
and  regretted.  In  the  course  of  the  assault  the  British  troops, 
in  the  confusion  and  smoke  of  battle,  fired  upon  each  other, 
and  Abercrombie  was  forced  to  relinquish  his  design.  After- 
wards Putnam  and  his  men  were  ambuscaded  by  the  French  ; 
Putnam  himself  was  captured  by  their  Indian  allies,  and  was 
on  the  point  of  being  burnt  to  death  at  the  stake,  to  which 
he  had  been  fastened,  when  a  French  officer  rushed  in, 
scattered  the  blazing  brands;  and  took  the  victim  to  his  quar- 

171 


1 72  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

ters.  When  Putnam  arrived  in  Montreal  he  was  in  a  very 
sad  plight,  with  ragged  clothes,  his  body  torn  with  briers, 
and  a  tomahawk  gash  in  his  face.  His  exchange  being 
shortly  effected,  in  1759  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  Lieuten- 
ant-Colonel, and  was  in  the  victorious  expedition  of  General 
Amherst  against  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point. 

In  the  rupture  between  Great  Britain  and  Spain,  in 
January,  1762,  a  formidable  expedition  against  Havana  was 
committed  to  the  charge  of  Lord  Albemarle.  It  was  com- 
posed in  part  of  provincials  from  New  York,  New  Jersey  and 
Connecticut  Putnam  accompanied  it  at  the  head  of  a 
regiment  After  the  reduction  of  Havana,  he  returned  home, 
and  settled  down  to  farming,  after  ten  years  of  military 
service. 

The  battle  of  Lexington,  April  19,  1775,  was  the  tocsin  of 
the  war.  Colonel  Putnam,  like  another  Cincinnatus,  on  hear- 
ing of  the  battle,  left  his  plough  in  the  field,  and  without 
delaying  to  change  his  clothes,  rode  one  hundred  miles  to 
Cambridge  in  a  single  day.  He  was  soon  appointed  Major- 
General  in  the  provincial  army.  Immediately  after  General 
Gage,  the  British  Commander-in-chief,  heard  of  this,  he 
privately  conveyed  to  Putnam  an  offer  of  a  Major-Generalship 
in  the  British  army,  together  with  a  great  pecuniary  reward 
as  the  price  of  his  honor ;  but  Putnam  spurned  the  proposal. 

In  the  battle  at  Bunker  Hill,  June  17,  1775,  General 
Putnam  arrived  in  time  to  participate  in  that  brilliant  affair, 
wherein  the  vanquished  were  really  the  victors,  although  the 
lack  of  ammunition  compelled  them  finally  to  give  up  the 
ground. 

When  Washington,  who  had  been  elected  by  Congress 
Commander-in-chief,  organized  the  American  army  at  Cam- 
bridge, July  2,  1775,  Putnam,  who  was  one  of  the  first  four 
Major-Generals  commissioned,  was  assigned  to  the  reserve 
division.  In  the  summer  of  1776,  when  General  Greene,  just 
before  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  was  taken  sick,  Washington 
selected  Putnam  to  fill  his  post.  Unfortunately  Putnam  did 
not  fully  appreciate  the  emergency,  and  did  not  take  full  pre- 
caution against  the  landing  of  the  British  troops.  The  battle 
was  lost,  and  the  British  entered  New  York.  However,  during 


GENERAI,  ISRAEL  PUTNAM.  173 

the  various  operations  that  followed  on  the  Hudson  and 
through  the  retreat  across  New  Jersey,  Putnam  was  energetic 
in  his  assistance  to  Washington,  and  during  November  he 
was  deputed  to  the  charge  of  Philadelphia.  In  January, 

1777,  he  was  sent  to  Princeton,  and,  in  May,  he  was  assigned 
a  separate  force  in  the  Highlands,  on  the  Hudson  River. 
This  was  now  an  important  point.     General  Burgoyne  was 
advancing  from  Canada,  and  Sir  Henry  Clinton  was  hastening 
up  the  Hudson.     Favored  by  a  fog,  most  of  Clinton's  force 
crossed  the  river  at  Stony  Point,  and  very  soon  captured  Forts 
Montgomery   and  Clinton.      Putnam  had,    of   necessity,  to 
retire  to  Fishkill,  and  the  command  of  the  river  was  lost. 
Gates  having  defeated  Burgoyne  at  Saratoga,  Washington  now 
ordered  a  brigade  to  Philadelphia,  and  Putnam,  for  some  rea^ 
son,  having  hesitated,  the  Commander-in-chief  censured  him 
in  a  letter.     Putnam,  however,  was  continued  in  the  com- 
mand of  the  Highlands. 

Here  occurred  the  tragical  incident  of  the  hanging  of  the 
British  spy,  a  lieutenant  of  a  levy  of  Tories.  Tryon,  the 
Royalist  Governor  of  New  York,  threatened  vengeance  if  the 
lieutenant  was  executed,  whereupon  Putnam  wrote  this 
pithy  reply : 

"SiR,  Nathan  Palmer,  a  lieutenant  in  your  King's  service,  was 
taken  in  my  camp  as  a  spy ;  he  was  tried  as  a  spy ;  he  was  condemned 
as  a  spy ;  and  he  shall  be  hanged  as  a  spy.  ISRAEL  PUTNAM." 

"  P.  S.  Afternoon.    He  is  hanged." 

To  Putnam  chiefly  belongs  the  merit  of  having  selected 
West  Point  as  the  true  key  of  the  Highlands.  In  March, 

1778,  Putnam   was  relieved  of  his   command,   through  the 
influence  of  certain  persons  in  New  York,  who  were  entrusted 
with  the  disposal  of  Tory  property.     He  had  interfered  to 
prevent    their  peculations.       In    1779    he  was   detached   to 
Connecticut,  where  he  was  nearly  surprised,  at  West  Green- 
wich, by  Governor  Tryon,  and  only  escaped  by  dashing,  on 
horseback,  headlong  down  a  steep  ascent,  nearly  one  hundred 
feet  high.    The  place  has  since  been  called  Putnam's  Leap, 
and  sometimes  Horse-neck  Hill. 

After  the  campaign  of  1779,  a  paralytic  affection  impaired 


174  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

his  bodily  activity,  and  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  days 
in  retirement.  He  died  at  Brookline,  Connecticut,  May  29, 
1790,  aged  seventy-two  years. 

THE  BATTLE  OP  BUNKER  HILL. 

The  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill  was  the  first  real  battle  of  the 
American  Revolution.  The  British  army,  under  General 
Thomas  Gage,  numbering  10,000  men,  occupied  Boston,  and 
were  besieged  by  the  Americans.  General  Artemas  Ward 
had  9,000  infantry  and  four  companies  of  artillery  at  Cam- 
bridge. General  Thomas  had  5,000  infantry  with  three 
companies  of  artillery,  extending  from  Roxbury  to  Dorchester. 
The  peninsula  upon  which  Charlestown  stands  is  separated 
from  the  northern  side  of  Boston  by  the  Charles  River.  On 
this  peninsula  are  two  elevations  ;  one,  known  as  Breed's 
Hill,  is  seventy-five  feet  high  ;  the  other,  called  Bunker  Hill, 
is  112  feet  high.  At  a  council  of  war  held  by  the  American 
generals  it  was  decided  to  fortify  this  peninsula. 

Accordingly,  a  detachment  of  1,000  men,  under  Colonel 
Prescott,  was  sent  thither,  on  the  night  of  the  i6th  of  June, 
1775,  with  orders  to  fortify  the  higher  hill,  but  by  mistake  in 
the  darkness  they  actually  began  work  on  the  lower.  They 
proceeded  with  such  secrecy  and  despatch  that  the  officers  of 
a  ship  of  war  then  in  the  river,  expressed  their  astonishment 
when  in  the  morning  they  saw  entrenchments  reared  and 
fortified  in  the  space  of  a  few  hours,  where  they  least 
expected  the  Americans  would  look  them  in  the  face. 

The  alarm  being  immediately  given,  orders  were  issued  by 
General  Gage  that  a  continual  fire  should  be  kept  playing  upon 
the  unfinished  works  from  the  ships,  the  floating  batteries  in 
the  river  and  Copp's  Hill,  a  fortified  post  of  the  British  in 
Boston,  directly  opposite  the  American  redoubt;  but,  with 
extraordinary  perseverance,  the  Americans  continued  to 
strengthen  their  works,  not  returning  a  shot.  At  noon  a 
number  of  boats  and  barges,  filled  with  regular  troops  from 
Boston,  approached  Charlestown.  The  day  was  exceedingly 
hot.  Ten  companies  of  grenadiers,  ten  of  light  infantry, 
with  a  proportion  of  field  artillery,  landed  at  Moulton's  Point, 
the  whole  commanded  by  Major-General  Howe  and  Brigadier- 


GENERAL  ISRAEL  PUTNAM.  175 

General  Pigot.  These  troops  having  formed,  remained  in 
that  position  till  joined  by  a  second  detachment  of  light 
infantry  and  grenadier  companies,  the  Forty-seventh  Regi- 
ment and  a  battalion  of  marines,  making  in  the  whole  near 
three  thousand  men. 

The  Americans  had  not  a  rifleman  amongst  them,  not  one 
having  yet  arrived  from  the  southward,  nor  had  they  any  rifles; 
their  arms  were  but  common  muskets,  and  these  mostly 
without  bayonets  ;  but  then  they  were  almost  all  marksmen, 
being  accustomed  to  sporting  of  one  kind  or  other  from  their 
youth.  A  reinforcement  of  Massachusetts  troops  was  posted 
in  a  redoubt,  and  in  part  of  the  breast-work  nearest  it.  The 
left  of  the  breast-work,  and  the  open  ground  stretching 
beyond  its  point  to  the  water  side,  along  which  time  did  not 
admit  of  accomplishing  the  work,  were  occupied  partly  by 
the  Massachusetts,  and  partly  by  the  Connecticut  men  under 
Captain  Knowlton,  of  Ashford,  and  the  New  Hampshire  under 
Colonel  Stark,  the  whole  amounting  to  about  one  thousand 
five  hundred  men.  By  direction  of  the  officers  the  troops 
upon  the  open  ground  pulled  up  the  post  and  rail  fence,  and 
carrying  it  forward  to  another  of  the  same  kind,  and  placing 
some  clods  of  grass  between,  formed  a  slight  defence  in  some 
parts. 

A  critical  scene  now  opened  to  the  view.  The  British 
regulars,  formed  in  two  lines,  advanced  slowly,  frequently 
halting  to  give  time  for  the  artillery  to  fire.  The  light 
infantry  were  directed  to  force  the  left  point  of  the  breast- 
work, and  to  take  the  American  line  in  flank.  The  grena- 
diers advanced  to  attack  in  front,  supported  by  two  battalions, 
under  General  Howe,  while  the  left,  under  General  Pigot, 
inclined  to  the  right  of  the  American  line.  As  the  British 
advanced  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  attack,  a  carcass,  or  shell, 
was  discharged  from  Copp's  Hill,  which  set  on  fire  an  old 
house  in  Charlestown,  and  the  flames  quickly  spread  to 
others.  The  houses  at  the  eastern  end  of  Charlestown  were 
set  on  fire  by  seamen  from  the  boats.  The  whole  town, 
consisting  of  about  three  hundred  dwelling-houses,  and  nearly 
two  hundred  other  buildings,  speedily  became  involved  in 
one  great  blaze,  being  chiefly  of  timber.  The  large  meeting- 


176  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

house,  by  its  aspiring  steeple,  formed  a  pyramid  of  fire  above 
the  rest  The  houses,  heights,  and  steeples  in  Boston  were 
covered  with  anxious  spectators  of  this  scene,  and  the  sur- 
rounding hills  were  occupied  by  others. 

The  slow  movement  of  the  British  troops  advancing  to 
the  attack,  afforded  to  the  Americans  the  advantage  of  taking 
a  surer  and  more  deliberate  aim.  The  wind  having  shifted, 
carried  the  smoke  in  such  a  direction  that  the  British  had  not 
the  cover  of  it  in  their  approach.  The  destruction  of  the 
place,  however,  served  to  prevent  their  opponents  from  effect- 
ing a  lodgement  in  the  houses,  whence  they  might  have 
annoyed  to  advantage.  General  Warren,  who  had  been 
appointed  by  Congress  a  Major-General  in  their  army  only 
four  days  before,  was  everywhere  aiding  and  encouraging  his 
men.  General  Pomeroy  commanded  a  brigade,  and  General 
Putnam  directed  the  whole  on  the  fall  of  General  Warren. 
The  troops  were  ordered  to  reserve  their  fire  until  the  close 
approach  of  the  British.  They  strictly  obeyed,  with  a  steadi- 
ness and  composure  that  would  have  done  honor  to  the  most 
approved  veterans,  and  when  the  enemy  had  arrived  within 
ten  or  twelve  rods,  poured  in  a  discharge  of  small  arms  which 
arrested  and  so  staggered  their  foes,  that  they  could  only  for 
a  time  return  it,  without  advancing  a  step.  Finding  the 
stream  of  the  American  fire  so  incessant  as  to  mow  down 
whole  sections,  they  retired  in  disorder  to  the  river.  Rallying 
as  well  as  their  extraordinary  loss  of  officers  would  admit  of, 
the  British  again  advanced  with  an  apparent  resolution  of 
forcing  their  way,  whatever  loss  of  lives  it  might  cost  them. 
The  Americans  again  reserved  their  fire  till  the  enemy  arrived 
within  five  or  six  rods,  when,  discharging  their  pieces,  which 
were  admirably  pointed,  they  threw  the  opposing  ranks  again 
into  confusion. 

General  Clinton,  who,  with  General  Gage,  the  Comman- 
der-in-chief of  the  British  forces  in  Boston,  was  on  Copp's 
Hill,  observing  the  events  of  the  day,  when  he  perceived  the 
disconcerted  state  of  the  troops,  passed  over  and  joined  just  in 
time  to  be  of  service.  The  united  and  strenuous  efforts  of 
the  different  officers  were  again  successful,  and  the  columns 
were  advanced  a  third  time  to  the  attack,  with  a  desperation 


GENERAL  ISRAEL  PUTNAM.  177 

increased  by  the  unshaken  opposition  they  experienced .  It  is 
probable,  from  the  nature  of  the  resistance,  that  every  effort 
to  dislodge  the  Americans  would  have  been  ineffectual,  had 
not  their  ammunition  failed ;  on  sending  for  a  supply  none 
could  be  procured,  as  there  was  but  a  barrel  and  a  half  in 
the  magazine.  This  deficiency  prevented  them  from  making 
the  same  defence  as  before ;  while  the  British  enjoyed  a 
farther  advantage  by  bringing  some  cannon  to  bear  so  as  to 
rake  the  inside  of  the  breast-work  from  end  to  end,  upon 
which  the  Americans  were  compelled  to  retreat  within  their 
redoubt. 

The  British  now  made  a  decisive  movement,  covered  by 
the  fire  of  the  ships,  batteries,  and  field-artillery .  The  Ameri- 
cans disputed  possession  of  the  works  with  the  butt-ends  of 
their  muskets,  until  the  redoubt,  easily  mounted  and  attacked 
on  three  sides  at  once,  was  taken,  and  their  defences,  the 
labor  of  only  a  few  hours,  had  been  prostrated  by  artillery. 
Whilst  these  operations  were  going  on  at  the  breast-work  and 
redoubt,  the  British  light  infantry  were  engaged  in  attempt- 
ing to  force  the  left  point  of  the  former,  through  the  space 
between  that  and  the  water,  that  they  might  take  the  Amer- 
icans line  in  flank.  The  resistance  they  met  with  was  as  for- 
midable and  fatal  in  its  effects  as  experienced  in  the  other 
quarter ;  for  here,  also,  the  Americans,  by  command,  reserved 
their  fire  till  the  enemy's  close  approach,  and  then  poured  in 
a  discharge  so  well  directed  and  with  such  execution  that 
wide  chasms  were  made  in  every  rank.  Some  of  the  Ameri- 
cans were  slightly  guarded  by  the  rail  fences  ;  but  others  were 
altogether  exposed,  so  that  their  bravery  in  close  combat  was 
put  to  the  test,  independent  of  defences  neither  formed  by 
military  rules  nor  workmen.  The  most  determined  assaults 
of  their  regular  opponents,  who  were  now  brought  to  the 
charge  with  redoubled  fury,  could  not,  after  all,  compel  them 
to  retreat,  till  they  observed  that  their  main  body  had  left  the 
hill,  when  they  retrograded,  but  with  a  regularity  that  could 
scarcely  have  been  expected  of  troops  newly  embodied,  and 
who  in  general  never  before  had  seen  an  engagement.  Over- 
powered by  numbers,  and  seeing  all  hope  of  reinforcement  cut 
off  by  the  incessant  fire  of  the  ships  across  a  neck  of  land  that 
12 


178  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

separated  them  from  the  country,  they  were  compelled  to  quit 
the  ground. 

The  staunch  opposition  of  this  band  of  patriots  saved  their 
comrades,  who  must  otherwise  have  been  cut  off,  as  the 
enemy,  but  for  them,  would  have  been  in  the  rear  of  the 
whole.  While  these  brave  heroes  retired,  disputing  every 
inch  of  ground,  and  taking  up  every  new  position  successively 
that  admitted  of  defence,  their  leader,  the  gallant  Warren, 
unfortunately  received  a  ball  through  the  right  side  of  the 
skull,  and  mechanically  clapping  his  hand  to  the  wound, 
dropped  down  dead. 

The  British,  taught  by  the  experience  of  this  day  to  respect 
their  rustic  adversaries,  contented  themselves  with  taking  post 
at  Bunker  Hill,  which  they  fortified.  The  Americans,  with 
the  enthusiasm  of  men  determined  to  be  free,  did  the  same 
upon  Prospect  Hill,  a  mile  in  front.  It  was  here  that  Gen- 
eral Putnam  regaled  the  precious  remains  of  his  army,  after 
their  fatigues,  with  several  hogsheads  of  beer.  Owing  to 
some  unaccountable  error,  the  working  parties  who  had 
been  incessantly  laboring  the  whole  of  the  preceding  night, 
were  neither  relieved  nor  supplied  with  refreshments,  but  left 
to  engage  under  all  these  disadvantages. 

This  battle  was  generally  admitted,  by  experienced  offi- 
cers of  the  British  army  who  witnessed  it  and  had  served  at 
Minden,  Dettingen,  and  throughout  the  campaigns  in  Ger- 
many, to  have  been  unparalleled  for  the  time  it  lasted,  and 
the  numbers  engaged.  There  was  a  continued  sheet  of  fire 
from  the  breast- work  for  nearly  half  an  hour,  and  the  action 
was  hot  for  about  double  that  period.  In  this  short  space  of 
time  the  loss  of  the  British,  according  to  General  Gage, 
amounted  to  1,054,  of  whom  226  were  killed ;  of  these  19 
were  commissioned  officers,  including  a  lieutenant-colonel,  two 
majors,  and  seven  captains  ;  70  other  officers  were  wounded. 

The  battle  of  Quebec,  in  the  former  war,  with  all  its  glory, 
and  the  vastness  of  the  consequences  attending  it,  was  not  so 
disastrous  in  the  loss  of  officers  as  this  affair  of  an  American 
entrenchment,  the  work  of  but  a  few  hours.  The  fact  was, 
the  Americans,  accustomed  to  aim  with  precision  and  to 
select  objects,  directed  their  skill  principally  against  the  officers 


GENERAL  ISRAEL  PUTNAM.  179 

of  the  British  army,  justly  conceiving  that  much  confusion 
would  ensue  on  their  fall.  Nearly  all  the  officers  around  the 
person  of  General  Howe  were  killed  or  disabled,  and  the  gen- 
eral himself  narrowly  escaped.  At  the  battle  of  Minden, 
where  the  British  regiments  sustained  the  force  of  the  whole 
French  army  for  a  considerable  time,  the  number  of  officers 
killed,  including  two  who  died  soon  after  of  their  wounds, 
was  only  1 3,  and  the  wounded  66  ;  the  total  loss  of  the  army 
on  that  occasion  was  291  in  killed,  and  1,037  wounded. 

The  British  acknowledged  the  valor  of  their  opponents 
which,  though  by  no  means  new  to  them,  surpassed  on  this 
occasion  what  could  have  been  expected  of  a  handful  of  cot- 
tagers, as  they  termed  them,  under  officers  of  little  military 
knowledge  and  still  less  experience,  whom  they  affected  to 
hold  in  contempt. 

They  pretended  to  forget  that  many  of  the  common  sol- 
diers who  gained  such  laurels  by  their  singular  bravery  on 
the  Plains  of  Abraham,  when  Wolfe  died  in  the  arms  of  vic- 
tory, were  natives  of  the  Massachusetts  Bay.  When  Mar- 
tinique was  attacked  in  1761,  and  the  British  force  was  greatly 
reduced  by  sickness  and  mortality,  the  timely  arrival  of  the 
New  England  troops  enabled  the  British  commander  to  prose- 
cute the  reduction  of  the  island  to  a  happy  issue.  A  part  of 
the  troops  being  sent  on  an  expedition  to  the  Havana,  the 
New-Englanders,  whose  health  had  been  much  impaired  by 
service  and  the  climate,  were  embarked  in  three  ships  for 
their  native  country,  with  a  view  to  their  recovery.  Before 
they  had  completed  their  voyage,  they  found  themselves 
restored,  ordered  the  ships  about,  steered  immediately  for  the 
Havana,  arrived  when  the  British  were  too  much  weakened 
to  expect  success,  and  by  their  junction,  contributed  materi- 
ally to  the  surrender  of  the  place.  Their  fidelity,  activity, 
and  good  conduct  were  such  as  to  gain  the  approbation  and 
unbounded  confidence  of  the  British  officers.  Of  such  ele- 
mentary principles  were  the  heroes  of  Bunker  Hill  com- 
posed. It  surely  was  a  misguided  policy  to  rouse  the  oppo- 
sition of  men  made  of  these  materials. 

The  blood  spilt  here  roused  the  whole  American  people, 
and  united  them  in  a  common  cause,  in  defence  of  their  rights. 


i8o 


HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 


Whether  indeed  we  consider  the  action  of  the  i7th  of  June 
in  itself,  or  as  the  prelude  to  succeeding  events,  we  must  pro- 
nounce it  most  glorious. 

If  we  except  that  of  New  Orleans,  no  parallel  is  to  be  found 
to  it  in  the  extent  of  impression  produced  upon  the  enemy. 
But  there  time  had  been  afforded  for  maturing  the  works, 
which  were  constructed  under  the  superintendence  of  skilful 
engineers,  and  extended  across  a  position  that  could  not  be 
outflanked.  Twelve  hours  only  were  gained  for  those  on 
Breed's  Hill,  formed,  during  a  great  part  of  the  time,  under  a 
heavy  fire  from  the  enemy's  ships,  a  number  of  floating  bat- 
teries, beside  fortifications  which  poured  upon  them  an  inces- 
sant shower  of  shot  and  shells,  and  left  incomplete,  owing  to 
the  severe  cannonade. — E.  FERRETT. 


GEN.  NATHANIEL  GREENE 


I 


NATHANIEL  GREENE  was,  after 
Washington,  the  ablest  of  the  Amer- 
ican Revolutionary  heroes.  His 
mental  qualities  singularly  resem- 
bled those  of  the  Commander-in- 
chief, — the  same  calm  judgment, 
the  same  originality,  energy,  perse- 
verance, and  capacity  of  adapting 
himself  to  circumstances.  When 
Washington,  year  after  year,  stood  on  the  defensive,  and  when 
Greene  made  his  memorable  retreat  through  North  Carolina, 
there  were  many  who  openly  charged  them  with  incapacity ; 
but  both  of  these  great  Generals,  conscious  of  their  superior 
insight,  persisted  in  the  course  they  had  laid  down  for  them- 
selves, and  finally  triumphed.  As  the  war  progressed  the 
natural  daring  of  Greene  became  tempered  with  prudence. 
Nothing  can  exceed  in  boldness  the  resolution  he  took  to 
abandon  Virginia  to  Cornwallis ;  yet  it  was  based  on  the 
soundest  rules,  and  eventually  wrought  the  downfall  of  that 
General,  and  the  emancipation  of  the  Carolinas. 

Nathaniel  Greene  was  born  at  Warwick,  Rhode  Island,  on 
the  27th  of  May,  1742.  His  family  were  Friends  or  Quakers, 
in  which  denomination  his  father  was  a  preacher ;  and  Greene 
himself  continued  a  member  of  that  sect  until  he  was  disowned 
in  consequence  of  his  assuming  arms.  His  education  was 
self-acquired,  and  he  worked  in  his  father's  blacksmith  shop, 
along  with  his  father,  until  he  was  elected  by  the  people  of 
Warwick  to  represent  them  in  the  General  Assembly  of 
Rhode  Island. 

181 


1 82  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

At  the  breaking  out  of  the  War  of  Independence  the  Leg- 
islature chose  Greene  to  command  the  troops,  with  the  rank 
of  Brigadier-General.  In  August,  1776,  Greene  was  commis- 
sioned a  Major-General.  He  was  with  the  army  at  Trenton 
and  Princeton,  sharing  in  that  enterprise  so  fortunate  for  the 
American  cause.  About  the  time  of  the  battle  at  German- 
town,  Washington  appointed  him  to  the  duties  of  Quarter- 
master-General. These  duties  he  performed  while  still  retain- 
ing his  rank  in  the  line. 

Everything  had  gone  wrong  for  the  patriots  in  the  South. 
The  British  considered  the  war  as  finished  there,  when  Greene, 
ordered  thither  by  Washington,  appeared  upon  the  scene. 
He  found  the  army  in  a  most  wretched  condition ;  a  mere 
skeleton  of  military  force,  having  been  wasted  away  by  sword, 
famine  and  desertion.  Many  of  his  companies  were  worse 
than  Falstaff's  famous  battalion,  for  they  were  not  only 
ragged,  but  almost  literally  naked. 

The  next  month  after  Greene's  arrival,  the  brave  General 
Morgan  having  joined  him,  was  fought  the  battle  of  Cowpens, 
January  17,  1781,  one  of  the  fiercest  of  the  war.  The  proud 
and  courageous  Tarleton  was  beaten  by  a  force  smaller  than 
his  own,  two-thirds  of  whom  were  raw  militia.  On  March 
15,  1781,  occurred  the  battle  of  Guilford  Court-House,  with- 
out decisive  results  for  either  side.  His  next  conflict  was 
with  the  forces  under  Lord  Rawdon,  at  Camden,  with  like 
result  as  the  previous  battle. 

The  British,  having  received  reinforcements,  took  the 
offensive  ;  but  in  turn  they  were  attacked  by  General  Greene, 
in  the  battle  at  Eutaw  Springs,  September  9,  1781.  Greene's 
army  was  victorious,  and  the  consequences  were  favorable  to 
the  American  cause ;  the  British,  who  had  so  long  lorded  it 
over  the  Carolinas,  were  forced  to  keep  themselves  in  Charles- 
ton. To  the  difficulties  that  at  this  time  embarrassed  General 
Greene,  was  added  that  of  a  dangerous  plot  among  a  few  of 
his  men,  whom  privations  had  made  reckless.  The  purpose 
of  it  was  to  deliver  up  their  brave  General  to  the  British. 
The  conspirators,  about  twelve  in  number,  were  severely 
punished  when  the  plot  was  fortunately  discovered. 

The  happy  moment  at  last  arrived,  when,  aided  by  the 


GENERAL,  NATHANIEL  GREENE.  183 

favor  of  Heaven,  America  compelled  Great  Britain  to  recog- 
nize her  Independence.  Cornwallis'  surrender  at  Yorktown, 
October  igth,  1781,  virtually  ended  the  war.  The  armies 
retired  from  the  tented  field  to  their  homes  to  cultivate  the 
arts  of  peace.  General  Greene  now  revisited  his  native  State, 
being  everywhere  received  with  enthusiasm.  In  October, 
1785,  he  removed  with  his  family  to  his  estate  near  Savannah, 
Georgia.  His  life  as  a  planter,  however,  was  brief.  He  died 
suddenly  June  19,  1786,  in  his  forty-fourth  year,  leaving  a 
wife  and  five  children. 

General  Greene,  like  every  other  man  who  has  achieved 
an  eminent  place  among  his  fellow-men,  had  his  detractors. 
He,  however,  lived  down  envy  and  malice,  and  rose  triumph- 
ant over  all  who  assailed  him.  He  possessed  an  undeviating 
honesty  and  integrity  of  character,  worthy  the  best  ages  of 
the  world.  He  claimed  no  lineal  honors — he  had  no  adventi- 
tious supports. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  GUILFORD  COURT-HOUSE. 

General  Gates,  the  victor  at  Saratoga,  had  yielded  his 
laurels  to  Cornwallis,  at  the  fatal  fight  of  Camden.  The  war 
in  the  South  needed  a  more  prudent  and  not  less  courageous 
warrior.  General  Greene  was  therefore  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand. The  debris  of  Gates'  army  awaited  him  at  Charlotte, 
North  Carolina.  Here  he  found  it ;  but  it  was  a  wreck  indeed, 
— few  in  number,  feeble  in  spirit,  and  wanting  everything 
necessary  to  proper  performance.  To  examine  into  the  nature 
of  the  country  he  designed  to  penetrate, — to  ascertain  the 
objects  and  resources  of  his  enemy, — to  find  or  make  the 
resources  essential  to  his  own  troops,  and  to  discipline  them 
for  active  and  immediate  service,  required  and  received  his 
instant  attention.  His  people  were  dispirited ;  his  enemy 
exulting  in  repeated  conquest.  To  avoid  precipitate  conflict 
with  the  latter,  without  still  farther  depressing  the  morale  of 
the  former,  required  the  talents  of  superior  generalship. 
Greene  brought  these  to  the  work  before  him.  It  was  fortu- 
nate that  he  was  admirably  sustained  by  his  own  officers,  and 
the  peculiar  abilities  of  the  partisan  captains  which  the  South 
furnished  for  co-operation  with  him.  With  Marion,  Sumter 


1 84  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

and  Pickens,  of  the  Carolina  troops ;  and  Morgan,  Williams, 
Howard,  Lee  and  Carrington,  of  the  regular  service,  he  might 
well  found  his  hopes  upon  a  resource  which  would  scarcely 
fail  him,  the  material  of  war  being  still  so  greatly  wanting. 
He  soon  entered  the  region  of  bloody  debate  and  peril.  A 
detachment,  under  Morgan,  was  sent  across  the  Catawba, 
while  Greene,  with  the  main  army,  encamped  upon  the  Pedee. 

His  presence  and  proceedings  were  very  soon  productive 
of  the  most  admirable  effects.  His  appearance  in  Carolina 
was  followed  by  results  of  the  most  encouraging  character. 
Marion  and  Lee  carried  Georgetown  by  surprise,  though  they 
failed  to  hold  it ;  and  Morgan,  after  some  small  successes 
against  the  Tories,  met  and  defeated  Tarleton,  in  the  bloody 
and  brilliant  battle  of  the  Cowpens.  Greene  soon  appeared 
in  the  camp  of  Morgan,  on  the  banks  of  the  Catawba.  Mean- 
while, Cornwallis  had  destroyed  his  baggage,  to  facilitate  his 
movements,  and  was  preparing  to  cross  the  same  river.  His 
objects  were  unknown  ;  but  Greene  endeavored  to  anticipate 
them.  He  drew  his  army  together  and  hastened  its  march 
towards  Salisbury.  "There  is  great  glory  ahead,"  he  writes 
in  one  of  his  letters  ;  "and  I  am  not  without  hopes  of  ruining 
Lord  Cornwallis,  if  he  persists  in  his  mad  scheme  of  pushing 
through  the  country."  The  aim  of  the  British  general  was 
not  long  doubtful.  The  waters  of  the  Catawba,  by  which  the 
two  armies  were  separated,  swollen  by  recent  rains,  now  began 
to  subside.  The  fords  were  practicable.  Greene  determined 
to  dispute  the  passage  with  his  militia,  and  to  retard  and  harass 
the  progress  of  the  enemy,  with  whom  he  was  not  yet  suf- 
ficiently strong  to  engage  in  equal  battle.  Cornwallis  effected 
the  passage  of  the  Catawba,  in  a  rain  storm,  and  under  the 
American  fire.  A  sharp  conflict  ensued.  The  British  suffered 
severely  ;  but  the  death  of  General  Davidson,  who  commanded 
the  militia,  had  the  effect  of  dispiriting  and  dispersing  them. 
Greene  retreated  upon  Salisbury. 

Cornwallis  urged  the  pursuit  with  vigor,  sending  General 
O'Hara  forward  to  prevent  the  Americans  from  passing  the 
Yadkin.  But  the  prudence  of  Greene,  by  which  boats  had 
been  secured  in  advance,  enabled  them  to  effect  the  passage 
before  the  British  appeared  in  sight.  The  Whigs  of  Salisbury 


GENERAL  NATHANIEL  GREENE.  185 

were  bringing  up  the  rear,  when  O'Hara's  advance  broke 
upon  them.  A  sharp  skirmish  followed,  in  which  both  parties 
claimed  the  victory.  But  the  Americans  gained  their  object 
They  threw  the  river  between  them  and  their  pursuers,  with- 
out loss  to  themselves,  baffled  the  efforts  of  O'Hara  to  seize 
upon  their  boats,  and,  in  the  delay  thus  caused  to  the  pursuit, 
the  Yadkin,  swelled  by  successive  rains  beyond  its  bounds, 
effectually  saved  the  Americans  from  farther  annoyance.  It 
was  in  vain  that  the  British  opened  with  a  fierce  cannonade 
upon  the  camp  of  Greene.  Their  bullets  tore  the  shingles 
from  the  roof  of  the  cabin  in  which  he  sat,  writing  his  dis- 
patches, but  without  disturbing  his  composure  or  injuring 
his  person. 

Cornwallis  continued  the  pursuit,  as  soon  as  he  could  cross 
the  river,  in  the  hope  of  cutting  off  his  adversary  from  the 
upper  fords  of  the  Dan.  The  manoeuvres  which  followed 
from  this  chase  have  been  justly  considered  among  the  most 
masterly  that  had  been  exhibited  during  the  American  war. 
Greene's  great  merit  was  that  Fabian  policy  which  had  so 
frequently  saved  Washington.  On  the  loth  of  February,  the 
two  armies  lay  within  twenty-five  miles  of  each  other.  Nearly 
one  month  had  been  consumed  in  this  protracted  pursuit,  and 
the  eyes  of  the  nation  were  drawn  upon  the  rival  armies.  To 
crush  his  adversary  without  impediment,  Cornwallis  had  de- 
stroyed his  baggage.  This  showed  a  rare  and  stern  resolution, 
at  all  hazards  to  effect  his  object.  But  one  river  lay  between 
the  British  general  and  Virginia.  This  crossed,  and  the  South 
must  be  detached  from  the  confederacy,  certainly  for  the  time, 
possibly  forever.  Greene  felt  the  vast  importance  of  the  trust ; 
and  his  genius  rose  with  its  pressure,  and  proved  equal  to  its 
exigencies.  We  cannot  pursue  these  beautiful  details  of  pro- 
gress, as  exquisitely  nice  and  as  admirably  calculated  as  any 
work  of  art,  by  which  a  series  of  the  most  masterly  manoeuvres, 
and  occasional  skirmishes  of  great  spirit,  placed  the  Ameri- 
cans in  safety  on  the  northern  banks  of  the  Dan,  and  finished 
this  remarkable  retreat  and  pursuit.  "Your  retreat,"  said 
Washington,  "is  highly  applauded  by  all  ranks."  Tarleton, 
an  enemy,  writes :  "Every  measure  of  the  Americans,  during 
their  march  from  the  Catawba  to  Virginia,  was  judiciously 


1 86  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

designed  and  vigorously  executed."  And  the  retreat,  thus 
made  in  the  immediate  presence  of  a  far  superior  foe,  was 
made  by  troops  many  of  whom  had  never  seen  battle, — raw 
militia,  in  fact, — without  adequate  clothing,  without  supplies, 
in  the  depth  of  winter,  and  under  inclement  skies.  The 
genius  of  their  commander  supplied  deficiencies,  soothed  dis- 
content, encouraged  hope,  and  converted  a  dispirited  militia 
into  confident  and  veteran  soldiers. 

Greene  soon  obtained  supplies  and  reinforcements.  Re- 
crossing  the  Dan,  it  was  now  the  turn  of  Cornwallis  to 
retreat.  Pickens  advanced  with  a  strong  body  of  militia  on 
the  left  flank  of  the  enemy.  Caswell,  with  a  subsidy  from 
the  North  Carolina  militia,  made  a  similar  demonstration 
from  the  opposite  direction.  The  two  armies  lay  sullenly 
watching  each  other,  when  the  British  columns  suddenly 
began  their  retreat  from  the  banks  of  the  Dan.  Bodies  of 
picked  men  from  the  American  army  followed  his  movements, 
at  once  to  harass  his  progress,  and  ascertain  his  objects. 
These  were  doubtful.  At  one  moment  he  seemed  to  threaten 
Pickens,  at  another  the  magazines  on  the  Roanoke  ;  but, 
suddenly  turning  his  back  upon  the  Dan,  he  moved  towards 
Hillsborough,  a  region  filled  with  loyalists,  whence  he  issued 
his  proclamation  calling  upon  the  faithful  to  repair  to  his 
standard.  But  the  time  had  come  when,  as  he  himself 
expressed  it,  the  friendly  had  grown  timid,  and  the  hostile 
inveterate.  Greene  watched  and  followed  all  his  movements, 
determined  to  prevent  his  flight  to  the  coast — a  purpose 
which  his  proceedings  seemed  to  indicate.  The  delay  of  a 
few  days,  he  well  knew,  would  be  fatal  to  the  British.  The 
American  partisans  were  closing  around  them.  The  army  of 
Greene  was  receiving  daily  accessions  ;  and  several  smart 
skirmishes,  in  which  the  British  suffered  great  losses,  had 
encouraged  their  adversaries  with  fresher  hopes.  Greene  was 
not  yet  strong  enough  to  give  battle  to  Cornwallis  ;  but 
circumstances  made  it  necessary  that  he  should  keep  the  field, 
and  exhibit  equal  boldness  and  activity.  His  light  troops 
were  continually  employed  in  beating  up  the  British  quarters, 
harassing  their  march,  cutting  off  their  supplies, — doing 
everything,  in  short,  but  pitching  their  standards  before 


GENERAL  NATHANIEL,  GREENE.  187 

them  in  the  plain.  It  became  the  policy  of  Cornwallis  to 
force  him  to  retreat  or  fight.  A  war  of  manoeuvre  followed, 
and  the  result  of  this  struggle  at  length  brought  Greene  to 
Guilford  Court-House,  within  fourteen  miles  of  the  British 
position. 

A  battle  was  now  nearly  inevitable,  and,  yielding  some- 
what to  popular  opinion,  Greene  was  prepared  to  wait  for  it, 
if  not  to  seek  it.  It  was  on  the  i5th  of  March,  1781,  that  he 
drew  up  in  order  of  battle.  The  ground  was  chosen  with 
regard  to  the  nature  of  the  American  troops.  It  was  broken 
and  irregular.  The  first  line  of  Greene  was  drawn  out  on  the 
skirts  of  a  wood,  and  at  right-angles  with  the  road  by  which 
the  enemy  was  approaching.  It  consisted  of  raw  and  un- 
trained militia  from  North  Carolina,  who  had  never  crossed 
arms  with  an  enemy.  But  they  were  practiced  marksmen. 
They  were  commanded  by  Generals  Butler  and  Eaton.  The 
second  line,  arranged  about  three  hundred  yards  behind  the 
first,  consisted  of  raw  troops  also,  Virginians,  led  by  Stevens 
and  Lawson.  Both  of  these  lines  extended  across  the  road. 
About  four  hundred  yards  behind  the  second  line,  the  Con- 
tinentals were  placed  under  Huger  and  Williams.  They  pre- 
sented, in  conformity  with  the  aspect  of  the  ground  they 
occupied,  a  double  front, — two  regiments  of  Virginia  regulars, 
under  Greene  and  Rudford,  on  the  right,  and  the  First  and 
Second  Maryland  on  the  left,  under  Gunby  and  Ford.  A 
corps  of  observation,  composed  of  the  dragoons  of  the  First 
and  Third  Regiments,  Lynch' s  Riflemen,  and  a  detachment  of 
light  infantry,  under  Lieutenant-Colonel  William  Washing- 
ton, covered  the  right  flank.  Lee,  with  his  legion,  supported 
by  detachments  of  light  infantry  and  riflemen,  increased  the 
securities  of  the  left,  and  both  of  these  corps  occupied  the 
woods  at  the  extremities  of  the  first  line.  The  artillery,  with 
the  exception  of  two  pieces,  under  Captain  Singleton,  which 
were  pushed  forward,  commanding  the  enemy's  first  ap- 
proaches, was  posted  with  the  regulars  on  the  hill,  near  the 
Court-House. 

The  van  of  the  British  army  came  under  the  fire  of 
Singleton's  pieces  about  one  o'clock  in  the  day.  A  brisk 
cannonade  from  the  royal  artillery  answered  them,  until  the 


1 88  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

British  had  formed  their  line  of  battle.  They  were  ranged  in 
a  single  line,  and  without  a  reserve.  They  advanced  under 
cover  of  the  smoke  from  their  artillery,  and  the  militia  yielded 
to  the  charge  of  the  bayonet,  delivering  a  partial  fire  only. 
The  enemy,  pressing  forward  upon  the  second  line,  were 
suddenly  checked  by  a  sharp  fire  from  the  corps  of  Washing- 
ton and  Lee.  To  dislodge  these  was  necessary  to  the  British 
progress.  Concentrating  a  sufficient  force  for  this  object, 
Cornwallis  drove  them  slowly  before  him,  suffering  severely 
under  their  fire,  and  making  his  way  only  with  the  bayonet. 
The  battle  now  began  with  double  spirit.  The  Virginia 
militia  met  the  tide  of  conflict  manfully,  undismayed  by  its 
torments  and  the  bad  example  of  the  North  Carolinians. 
The  fire  told  with  deadly  effect  upon  the  assailants,  whom 
nothing  saved  but  the  flight  of  the  first  line  of  the  Americans 
and  their  own  admirable  discipline.  The  right  wing  of  the 
Americans  gradually  yielded,  but  with  ranks  still  unbroken. 
The  British  followed  up  their  advantage  with  the  bayonet, 
and  the  retreat  of  the  wing,  which  still  held  together,  became 
general  throughout  the  line.  Retreating  to  the  third  line, 
they  took  post  on  the  right  of  the  Marylanders.  On  the  left, 
where  the  militia  was  supported  by  the  corps  of  lyee  and 
Campbell,  the  action  still  continued. 

The  eye  of  Greene  was  cheered  by  the  prospect,  with  all 
its  disadvantages.  By  this  time  the  whole  of  the  British 
army,  with  the  exception  of  its  cavalry,  had  been  brought  into 
action.  It  had  suffered  to  a  considerable  degree,  in  all  its 
divisions,  from  the  American  fire.  The  line  was  dismembered, 
some  of  its  corps  were  scattered  ;  and,  with  his  third  line 
fresh,  and  as  yet  untouched,  the  American  general  had  every 
reason  to  think  that  the  victory  was  within  his  gsasp.  The 
veteran  regiment  of  Gunby  was  the  first  to  feel  the  British 
fire,  as  General  Webster,  with  his  division,  flushed  with  the 
success  already  won,  advanced  upon  the  third  line  of  the 
Americans.  Discipline  met  discipline.  They  were  received 
by  a  steady  blaze  of  fire,  general  and  well-directed,  under 
which  they  reeled,  stunned  and  confounded,  and  before  they 
could  recover  from  the  shock,  the  Americans  were  upon  them 
with  the  bayonet.  The  rout  was  complete.  Had  the  cavalry 


GENERAL,  NATHANIEL  GREENE.  189 

of  Greene  been  present,  or  could  he  have  ventured  to  push 
forward  another  regiment  to  follow  up  the  blow,  the  conflict 
would  have  been  finished  in  victory. 

But  the  battle  was  still  raging  on  the  left,  and  had 
assumed  an  aspect  unfavorable  to  his  fortunes.  Stevens,  who 
commanded  the  left  wing  of  the  Virginians,  had  been 
disabled ;  his  militia,  after  a  gallant  struggle,  had  at  length 
yielded  to  the  push  of  the  veteran  bayonet,  and,  still  deliver- 
ing their  fire  from  tree  to  tree,  as  they  withdrew,  were 
winding  through  the  woods  to  the  rear  of  the  Continentals. 
Their  retreat  left  the  column  of  Leslie  free  to  hasten  to  the 
support  of  that  of  O'Hara,  who  was  now  hurrying  to  the 
assault  upon  the  Second  Regiment  of  Maryland.  It  was  their 
shame  and  Greene's  misfortune,  that  this  latter  body  failed  to 
follow  the  brilliant  example  just  given  them  by  that  of 
Gunby, — failed  in  the  moment  of  trial,  and,  breaking  at  the 
first  rude  collision  with  the  enemy,  scattered  themselves  in 
confusion  through  the  field.  Gunby's  regiment  again  inter- 
posed to  check  the  progress  of  the  British.  Wheeling  to  the 
left  upon  the  advancing  guards  of  the  enemy,  they  compelled 
a  renewal  of  the  contest.  Fierce  and  wild  was  the  encounter. 
Gunby's  horse  was  shot  down;  Howard  succeeded  to  the  com- 
mand. At  the  moment  of  the  greatest  peril,  when  the  strife 
was  at  its  worst,  Washington  with  his  cavalry  dashed  through 
the  British  ranks,  smiting  terribly  on  every  side.  The  charge 
of  the  bayonet,  led  by  Howard,  rendered  the  shock  irresistible, 
and  Stuart,  the  commander  of  the  guards,  being  slain,  they 
sought  safety  in  flight,  suffering  dreadfully  under  the  close 
pursuit  of  Howard  and  Washington,  who  gave  them  no 
breathing  moment  to  reunite  their  broken  ranks. 

Cornwallis  beheld  the  peril  of  the  day.  The  field  could 
be  saved  only  by  an  expedient,  at  once  bold  and  terrible.  He 
did  not  scruple  to  use  it.  The  ground  was  covered  by  his 
favorite  but  flying  troops.  The  Americans  were  close  upon 
their  footsteps.  All  was  about  to  be  lost,  when  the  stern  but 
sagacious  Briton  commanded  his  artillery  to  open  upon  the 
mingled  masses,  though  every  bullet  told  equally  upon  friend 
and  foe.  "It  is  destroying  ourselves,"  remonstrated  O'Hara. 
u  Very  true,"  was  the  reply  of  Cornwallis,  "  but  it  is  neces- 


190  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

sary  that  we  should  do  so,  to  arrest  impending  destruction." 
The  expedient  was  successful ;  the  pursuing  Americans 
paused  from  the  work  of  death ;  but  one-half  of  the  British 
battalion  was  cut  to  pieces  by  their  own  artillery. 

As  the  British  rallied,  Greene  seized  the  opportunity  to 
recall  his  troops,  and  retire  from  a  field  at  once  of  defeat  and 
victory.  The  laurel  had  been  within  his  grasp  more  than 
once  during  the  conflict  The  premature  flight  of  the  first 
line,  .before  their  fire  had  well  told  upon  their  assailants — the 
unhappy  panic  of  the  Second  Regiment  of  Maryland — had  lost 
him  the  day.  But  for  these  events  the  victory  was  beyond  all 
question.  To  Cornwallis,  who  had  narrowly  escaped  captivity 
in  the  conflict,  it  was  such  a  victory  as  that  of  Pyrrhus.  It 
left  him  undone.  The  fruits  of  the  battle  of  Guilford  inured 
to  the  Americans.  The  remaining  force  of  Cornwallis  showed 
a  diminution  of  one-fourth  of  its  strength,  and  its  progress 
was  encumbered  by  his  numerous  wounded.  It  soon  became 
necessary  that  he  should  retreat  from  the  barren  field  that  he 
boasted  to  have  won.  Greene  pressed  upon  his  retreating 
footsteps.  But  the  flight  of  Cornwallis  was  too  precipitate ; 
and,  after  having  contributed,  by  an  eager  pursuit,  to  quicken 
further  his  movements^  Greene  forbore  the  chase,  and  pre- 
pared to  contemplate  a  new  enemy  and  another  field  of 
action.— J.  T.  HEADLEY. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  EUTAW. 

Hark !  'tis  the  voice  of  the  mountain, 

And  it  speaks  to  our  heart  in  its  pride, 
As  it  tells  of  the  bearing  of  heroes 

Who  compassed  its  summits  and  died ! 
How  they  gathered  to  strife  as  the  eagles, 

When  the  foeman  had  clambered  the  height, 
How,  with  scent  keen  and  eager  as  beagles, 

They  hunted  him  down  for  the  fight 

Hark  !  through  the  gorge  of  the  valley, 

'Tis  the  bugle  that  tells  of  the  foe ; 
Our  own  quickly  sounds  for  the  rally, 

And  we  snatch  down  the  rifle  and  go. 


GENERAI,  NATHANIEL  GREENE.  191 

As  the  hunter  who  hears  of  the  panther, 

Each  arms  him  and  leaps  to  his  steed, 
Rides  forth  through  the  desolate  antre, 

With  his  knife  and  his  rifle  at  need. 

From  a  thousand  deep  gorges  they  gather, 

From  the  cot  lowly  perched  by  the  rill, 
The  cabin  half  hid  in  the  heather, 

'  Neath  the  crag  where  the  eagle  keeps  still, 
Each  lonely  at  first  in  his  roaming, 

Till  the  vale  to  the  sight  opens  fair, 
And  he  sees  the  low  cot  through  the  gloaming, 

When  his  bugle  gives  tongue  to  the  air. 

Thus  a  thousand  brave  hunters  assemble 

For  the  hunt  of  the  insolent  foe, 
And  soon  shall  his  myrmidons  tremble 

'Neath  the  shock  of  the  thunderbolt's  blow, 
Down  the  lone  heights  now  wind  they  together, 

As  the  mountain-brooks  flow  to  the  vale, 
And  now,  as  they  group  on  the  heather, 

The  keen  scout  delivers  his  tale  : 

' '  The  British — the  Tories  are  on  us, 

And  now  is  the  moment  to  prove 
To  the  women  whose  virtues  have  won  us, 

That  our  virtues  are  worthy  their  love  ! 
They  have  swept  the  vast  valleys  below  us 

With  fire,  to  the  hills  from  the  sea  ; 
And  here  would  they  seek  to  o'erthrow  us 

In  a  realm  which  our  eagle  makes  free  !  " 

No  war-council  suffered  to  trifle 

With  the  hours  devote  to  the  deed  ; 
Swift  followed  the  grasp  of  the  rifle, 

Swift  followed  the  bound  to  the  steed ; 
And  soon  to  the  eyes  of  our  yeomen, 

All  panting  with  rage  at  the  sight, 
Gleamed  the  long  wavy  tents  of  the  foeman, 

As  he  lay  in  his  camp  on  the  height. 

Grim  dashed  they  away  as  they  bounded, 
The  hunters  to  hem  in  the  prey, 


192  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

And,  with  Deckard's  long  rifles  surrounded, 
Then  the  British  rose  fast  to  the  fray ; 

And  never  with  arms  of  more  vigor 

Did  their  bayonets  press  through  the  strife, 

Where  with  every  swift  pull  of  the  trigger, 
The  sharp-shooters  dashed  out  a  life! 

'Twas  the  meeting  of  eagles  and  lions  ; 

'Twas  the  rushing  of  tempests  and  waves, 
Insolent  triumph  'gainst  patriot  defiance, 

Born  freemen  'gainst  sycophant  slaves; 
Scotch  Ferguson  sounding  his  whistle, 

As  from  danger  to  danger  he  flies, 
Feels  the  moral  that  lies  in  Scotch  thistle, 

With  its  "  touch  me  who  dare  "  and  he  dies ! 

An  hour,  and  the  battle  is  over ; 

The  eagles  are  rending  their  prey ; 
The  serpents  seek  flight  into  cover, 

But  the  terror  still  stands  in  the  way : 
More  dreadful  the  doom  that  on  treason 

Avenges  the  wrong  of  the  state ; 
And  the  oak  tree  for  many  a  season 

Bears  fruit  for  the  vultures  of  fate! 

W.  GILMORE  SIMMS. 


•  GENERAL  DANIEL  MORGAN. 


GENERAL  MORGAN'S  victory  at 
Cowpens  was  the  turning  point  of  the 
struggle  for  American  Independence 
in  the  Southern  States.  Though  a 
citizen  of  Virginia,  he  was  originally 
from  the  North.  He  was  of  Welsh 
extraction,  and  was  born  in  New 
Jersey  in  1736.  His  e'ducation  was 
entirely  neglected,  and  his  adventur- 
ous disposition  led  him,  at  the  age 
of  seventeen,  to  run  away  from  home.  Wandering  to  the 
wildest  parts  of  Virginia,  he  settled,  in  1754,  in  Berkeley 
County  (since  Jefferson),  at  Charlestown. 

When  General  Braddock  came  with  his  army  in  1755,  young 
Morgan  joined  the  expedition  with  his  wagon  and  horses,  be- 
ginning his  military  career  as  a  teamster.  Braddock  pushed 
forward  with  the  greater  portion  of  the  troops,  leaving  Colonel 
Dunbar  in  command  at  Little  Meadows.  When  Braddock' s 
force  was  routed  by  the  Indians,  Virginia  raised  an  additional 
regiment,  and  gave  the  command  to  Washington.  Morgan, 
with  his  wagon  and  team,  was  attached  to  the  quartermaster's 
department.  In  1 756,  while  taking  a  wagon-load  of  stores  to 
Fort  Chiswell,  he  got  into  serious  trouble.  A  British  officer, 
taking  offence  at  something  he  had  done,  struck  him  with 
the  flat  of  his  sword.  Morgan  knocked  the  officer  down.  He 
received  for  this  offence  the  horrible  punishment  of  five  hun- 
dred lashes  on  his  naked  back.  Morgan  received  his  first 
commission  as  ensign  from  Governor  Dinwiddie,  in  recog- 
nition of  bravery  he  displayed,  at  the  head  of  a  few  back- 
woodsmen, defeating  a  small  force  of  Frenchmen.  Shortly 
13  193 


194  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

afterwards,  in  an  engagement  with  Indians,  he  was  shot 
through  the  neck.  Morgan  kept  his  seat  on  horseback,  and 
although  weak  from  loss  of  blood,  got  safely  back  to  the  fort. 

Having  married  Abigail  Bailey,  a  farmer's  daughter,  Mor- 
gan now  purchased  a  house  and  piece  of  land  a  few  miles  east 
of  Winchester.  This  he  named  "Soldier's  Rest"  Here, 
with  his  wife,  he  established  himself  and  commenced  his 
domestic  career.  In  1771  he  received  a  commission  as  Cap- 
tain of  militia,  and  served  in  Lord  Dunmore's  war  on  the 
frontier.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  in  1775,  Morgan, 
with  a  company  of  riflemen,  marched  to  the  American  camp 
before  Boston,  a  distance  of  600  miles,  which  he  covered  in 
twenty-one  days.  In  September  he  was  sent  with  the  expe- 
dition against  Quebec,  and  marched  with  Arnold  through 
Maine.  In  the  attack  on  the  city  Arnold  was  wounded,  and 
Morgan  and  his  riflemen  carried  a  battery  at  the  west  angle 
of  the  town;  but  he  was  surrounded  and  taken  prisoner. 
Governor  Carleton,  admiring  his  bravery,  released  him  on 
parole  and  he  returned  to  Virginia.  Prisoners  being  ex- 
changed, he  was  released  from  parole. 

Towards  the  close  of  1776,  Morgan  was  appointed  colonel 
of  a  rifle  regiment  In  this  and  the  following  year,  he  also 
rendered  Washington  valuable  assistance  in  New  Jersey. 
Being  sent  to  assist  Gates,  he  largely  contributed  to  the  cap- 
ture of  Burgoyne,  though  Gates  did  not  speak  of  it  in  his 
dispatches.  In  the  South  he  served  again,  under  that  general 
and  Greene.  With  great  valor  he  defeated  Tarleton,  in  the 
battle  of  the  Cowpens,  January  17,  1781.  This  was  the 
crowning  achievement  of  his  career,  and  for  his  valuable 
services  he  received  a  gold  medal  from  Congress.  He  con- 
tinued in  every  way  to  harass  Cornwallis,  until  compelled  by 
sickness  to  retire  to  his  home. 

From  1795  to  1799,  Morgan  was  a  member  of  Congress. 
The  year  previous  to  his  election  in  Congress,  he  helped  in 
quelling  the  Whiskey  Insurrection  in  Pennsylvania.  After 
living  thirteen  years  in  retirement  on  his  estate,  he  died 
at  Winchester,  Va.,  6th  of  July,  1802.  General  Morgan 
was  plain  in  his  manners,  and  indulgent  in  command  of  his 
trusty  riflemen.  Whatever  task  he  undertook,  however  diffi- 


GENERAL  DANIEL,  MORGAN.  195 

cult,  he  executed  it  with  unshaken  courage  and  perseverance. 
He  was  a  true  Christian  of  the  Presbyterian  faith.  Of 
undoubted  veracity,  he  was  the  soul  of  honor. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  COWPENS. 

In  December,  1780,  General  Greene  reached  the  Ameri- 
can camp,  and  assumed  command  of  the  Southern  Army .  He 
was  attended  by  General  Morgan  at  the  head  of  a  body  of 
Virginia  regulars  and  a  few  light  troops.  Greene's  object  was 
to  prevent  a  general  engagement  in  the  open  field,  for  which 
he  was  ill-prepared.  He  resolved  by  prudent  means  to  rouse 
the  spirit  of  the  country,  already  excited  by  the  cruelty  of  the 
English  ;  to  suppress  the  meeting  of  the  Tories,  and  to  keep 
the  enemy  in  check.  Having  taken  post  with  the  main  body 
of  his  army  at  Hicks'  Creek,  he  sent  Morgan  to  the  country 
bordering  on  the  Pacolet  River,  that  he  might  organize  resist- 
ance to  the  enemy,  and  make  a  demonstration  against  Fort 
Ninety-Six.  Morgan's  whole  command  consisted  of  not  more 
than  six  hundred  men — three  hundred  infantry  under  Lieuten- 
ant-Colonel John  Eager  Howard,  two  hundred  Virginia  rifle- 
men, and  about  one  hundred  gallant  dragoons  under  Colonel 
William  Washington. 

When  Cornwallis  learned  of  his  movements,  he  dispatched 
his  celebrated  subordinate,  Colonel  Tarleton,  to  oppose  him, 
and  if  possible  to  force  him  into  action.  The  name  of  Tarle- 
ton had  become  proverbial  through  the  country  for  his  activ- 
ity, his  success,  and  his  harsh  measures  towards  the  patriots. 
He  promised  himself  an  easy  victory  over  "the  wagoner,"  as 
Morgan  was  called  in  contempt,  and  the  force  at  his  command 
seemed  fully  to  justify  his  expectations.  Tarleton  had  light 
and  legion  infantry,  fusileers,  three  hundred  and  fifty  cavalry, 
and  a  fine  battalion  of  the  Seventy-first  Regiment,  making  in 
all  eleven  hundred  men,  besides  two  field-pieces  well  served 
by  artillerists.  But  he  had  now  to  encounter  a  general  who 
had  braved  the  snows  of  Camden,  had  scaled  the  walls  of  Que- 
bec, and  had  faced  the  legions  of  Burgoyne.  With  consum- 
mate prudence  Morgan  retreated  until  he  reached  the  mem- 
orable field  of  the  Cowpens,  near  one  of  the  branches  of 
Pacolet  River.  This  was  a  place  in  the  woods  roughly 


196  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

enclosed,  in  which  the  cattle  of  the  settlers,  who  roamed  at 
large  most  of  the  year,  were  gathered  at  certain  seasons  to  be 
claimed  by  their  owners.  Here,  in  the  face  of  a  superior 
enemy,  Morgan  determined  to  make  a  stand.  He  communi- 
cated his  design  to  his  inferior  officers,  and  with  ready  spirit 
they  prepared  the  minds  of  the  men  for  the  expected  combat. 
Morgan's  arrangement  was  simple  but  masterly,  and  showed 
a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  character,  both  of  his  own  force 
and  of  that  of  Tarleton.  In  the  open  wood,  which  formed  the 
Cowpens,  he  established  three  lines  ;  the  first  consisted  of  the 
militia,  under  Colonel  Pickens,  a  brave  officer  who  had  been 
recently  released  from  captivity  among  the  English.  The 
next  line  embraced  all  the  regular  infantry  and  the  Virginia 
riflemen,  and  was  commanded  by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Howard. 
The  third  was  formed  by  Washington's  dragoons,  and  about 
fifty  mounted  militia,  armed  with  swords  and  pistols.  Know- 
ing that  the  militia,  though  full  of  courage,  were  liable  to 
panics,  Morgan  directed  that  the  first  line,  if  overpowered, 
should  gradually  retire  and  form  on  the  right  and  left  of  the 
second.  When  Tarleton  found  his  foe  drawn  up  in  battle 
order,  he  rejoiced  in  the  hope  of  a  speedy  victory,  and  though 
his  troops  were  somewhat  fatigued  by  a  rapid  march,  he  gave 
orders  for  a  charge.  Before  his  first  line  was  perfectly  formed, 
he  placed  himself  at  its  head,  and  in  person  rushed  to  the 
onset.  Colonel  Pickens  ordered  his  men  not  to  fire  until  their 
adversaries  were  within  fifty  yards,  and  their  fire  was  delivered 
with  great  steadiness  and  with  severe  effect.  But  so  impetu- 
ous was  the  British  charge  that  the  militia  gave  way,  and 
falling  back  attempted  to  form  on  the  flanks  of  the  second 
line. 

At  the  head  of  his  legion  and  fusileers,  Tarleton  pressed 
upon  the  regulars  and  riflemen,  and  notwithstanding  their  stern 
resistance  they  were  borne  down  by  numbers,  and  forced  to 
yield  their  ground.  The  British  regarded  their  victory  as 
secured,  and  for  a  time  at  least  the  hearts  of  the  Republicans 
failed.  But  Morgan  was  everywhere  encouraging  his  men  by 
his  voice  and  presence.  At  this  moment,  when  their  very 
success  had  caused  some  confusion  among  the  fusileers,  Wash- 
ington at  the  head  of  his  dragoons  made  a  furious  charge,  and 


GENERAL  DANIEL  MORGAN.  197 

dashing  in  among  them  overthrew  them  in  a  moment.  His 
horses  passed  over  the  British  infantry  like  a  storm,  and  the 
swords  of  his  men  hewed  them  down  with  resistless  sway.  In 
this  happy  crisis,  Howard  succeeded  in  restoring  the  Conti- 
nentals to  order,  and  Pickens  rallied  the  militia  and  brought 
them  again  into  line.  Morgan  gave  the  word  to  advance,  and 
with  presented  bayonets  the  compact  line  bore  down  upon  the 
Royalists.  Struck  with  astonishment  at  finding  themselves 
thus  assaulted  by  men  whom  just  before  they  looked  upon 
as  defeated,  the  English  troops  wavered  and  then  broke  in 
disorder  before  the  charge.  In  vain  their  officers  endeavored 
to  rally  them  for  a  renewed  stand.  The  spirits  of  the  patriots 
were  roused,  and  pressing  forward  with  their  bayonets  they 
carried  everything  before  them.  Infantry  and  cavalry  were 
alike  broken  by  their  violence.  Nearly  two  hundred  of 
Tarleton's  horse  retreated  in  dismay  from  the  field,  riding 
over  their  comrades,  and  involving  them  in  confusion  beyond 
remedy.  The  Americans  gained  the  two  field-pieces,  and 
Colonel  Howard  having  come  up  with  a  large  body  of  infantry 
and  summoned  them  to  surrender,  they  laid  down  their  arms 
on  the  field.  The  rout  of  the  British  was  now  complete  ;  a 
more  signal  victory  had  never  been  achieved.  Washington 
and  his  horse  followed  the  flying  foe  during  several  hours,  and 
Tarleton  himself  narrowly  escaped  falling  into  the  hands  of 
his  determined  pursuer. 

Such  was  the  brilliant  battle  of  the  Cowpens,  and  beyond 
doubt  the  success  of  the  Americans  must  be  largely  attributed 
to  the  prudent  arrangement  of  General  Morgan,  and  to  the 
brave  spirit  which  he  had  succeeded  in  infusing  into  his  men. 
To  form  some  idea  of  the  importance  of  this  victory,  we  must 
recall  the  loss  of  the  enemy  and  the  gain  of  the  Americans. 
The  British  lost  ten  officers  and  more  than  one  hundred  pri- 
vates killed,  two  hundred  men  wounded,  twenty-nine  officers 
and  above  five  hundred  privates  prisoners.  The  Americans 
captured  two  field-pieces,  two  standards,  eight  hundred 
muskets,  thirty-five  baggage-wagons,  and  more  than  one 
hundred  cavalry  horses ;  and  they  lost  but  twelve  men  killed 
and  sixty  wounded. 

But  great  as  was  the  effect  of  this  battle  in  restoring  the 


198  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

confidence  of  the  Americans,  it  was  hardly  more  important  to 
the  future  fame  of  Morgan  than  his  subsequent  retreat. 
When  Cornwallis  learned  of  the  total  defeat  of  his  favorite 
Tarleton,  and  of  the  destruction  of  his  corps,  he  was  deeply 
mortified  ;  but  instead  of  yielding  to  despondency,  he  resolved 
to  pursue  the  victor  and  wrest  the  fruits  of  triumph  from  his 
hands.  Leaving  behind  him  heavy  baggage  and  everything 
that  could  impede  his  progress,  he  pressed  on,  hoping  to 
overtake  his  enemy  and  crush  him  at  a  blow  ere  he  could 
cross  the  Catawba  River.  But  the  sagacious  American  had 
anticipated  his  movements  and  prepared  to  counteract  his 
design.  Sending  his  prisoners  on  before  under  a  strong 
guard  of  militia,  he  manoeuvred  in  the  rear  with  his  regulars 
and  riflemen,  whom  he  knew  he  could  at  any  time  push  to  a 
rapid  march.  Thus  the  vanguard  and  prisoners  crossed  the 
Catawba  on  the  29th  of  January,  and  Morgan,  still  retreating 
before  Cornwallis,  passed  the  river  in  safety  on  the  evening 
of  the  same  day.  Hardly  had  he  crossed  before  the  English 
army  appeared  on  the  other  side,  but  during  the  night  a 
tremendous  fall  of  rain  took  place,  and  so  swelled  the  river 
that  a  passage  became  impracticable.  Thus  nature  herself 
seemed  to  come  to  the  aid  of  liberty ;  nor  was  this  the  only 
occasion  in  which  she  interposed  in  behalf  of  the  patriot 
army. 

General  Greene  had  feared  for  Morgan's  safety,  and 
believing  that  his  own  presence  in  this  division  of  the  army 
would  contribute  to  its  success  in  the  retreat  yet  before  it,  he 
left  the  main  body  at  Hicks'  Creek,  under  General  Huger, 
directing  him  to  retire  as  rapidly  as  possible  and  form  a 
junction  with  Morgan's  division  at  Guilford  Court-House  in 
North  Carolina.  When  Greene  reached  the  camp  of  his  sub- 
ordinate on  the  3ist  of  January,  the  two  generals  immediately 
entered  into  consultation  as  to  the  best  route  for  their  con- 
tinued retreat.  Morgan  thought  a  road  over  the  mountains 
the  most  eligible,  as  he  believed  his  men  were  accustomed  to 
such  localities,  and  he  knew  the  roughness  of  the  way  would 
oppose  many  obstacles  to  a  pursuing  army.  But  Greene  pre- 
ferred the  lower  route,  and  when  Morgan  urged  his  wishes 
and  declared  that  if  the  mountain  road  were  not  taken  he 


GENERAI,  DANIEL  MORGAN.  199 

would  not  be  answerable  for  the  consequences,  Greene  replied, 
u  Neither  will  you  be  answerable,  for  I  shall  take  the  measure 
upon  myself. ' '  Thus  the  dispute  was  ended,  and  the  march 
commenced. 

Cornwallis  marched  rapidly  up  the  Catawba  River  to  cross 
at  McGowan's  Ford.  Had  a  sufficient  force,  even  of  resolute 
militia,  opposed  him  on  the  northern  bank,  it  is  not  probable 
that  his  passage  would  have  been  effected  without  severe  loss. 
But  the  Americans  had  unhappily  taken  post  too  far  from  the 
bank.  A  small  number  only  disputed  the  point,  and  the 
British  army  forded  in  safety,  though  the  water  was  generally 
up  to  the  middle  of  their  bodies.  General  Davidson,  of  North 
Carolina,  was  killed  in  the  skirmish,  and  the  militia  rapidly 
retreated.  Thus  Greene  was  again  in  danger,  and  it  seems 
that  had  he  taken  the  mountain  route  recommended  by 
Morgan,  he  might  have  been  overwhelmed  by  his  vigilant 
enemy.  Reaching  the  banks  of  the  Yadkin,  he  crossed  on 
the  2d  and  3d  of  February.  The  passage  was  made  partly  in 
flats  and  partly  by  fording,  and  all  the  boats  were  secured  on 
the  northern  side.  Cornwallis  was  so  close  on  his  rear  that 
the  light  troops  of  both  armies  skirmished  with  each  other, 
and  the  Virginia  riflemen  did  good  service.  But  in  the 
night  rain  fell  in  torrents  and  the  waters  of  the  Yadkin  rose 
suddenly  to  a  height  which  rendered  fording  impossible. 
Again  the  British  general  was  foiled.  The  American  army 
was  saved  from  a  dangerous  encounter,  and  the  patriots,  not 
without  reason,  ascribed  their  deliverance  to  divine  inter- 
vention. 

At  Gtiilford  Court-House  the  two  divisions  of  the  army 
united,  and  a  few  days  were  allowed  for  refreshment  after  the 
late  rapid  marching.  General  Morgan  here  resigned  his  com- 
mand, and  suggested  Colonel  Otho  Williams  as  his  successor, 
who  was  immediately  appointed  by  Greene.  It  has  been 
thought  by  many  that  Morgan's  resignation  was  caused  by 
his  dispute  with  his  superior  ;  but  we  have  the  best  reason  to 
believe  that  this  was  not  the  case.  Though  firm  and  proud, 
he  was  generous  and  intelligent,  and  he  could  not  have  failed 
to  perceive  that  Greene's  measures  had  been  prudent,  and 
that  the  course  he  himself  had  preferred  would  have  been 


2OO  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

highly  dangerous.  We  have  a  much  more  satisfactory  expla- 
nation of  his  wish  for  retirement.  His  old  malady,  the 
rheumatism,  had  returned  upon  him,  and  aggravated  by  his 
late  exposure,  it  had  rendered  him  incapable  of  exertion. 
After  crossing  the  Yadkin,  it  became  so  violent  that  he  was 
unable  to  retain  his  command,  and  had  he  remained  with  the 
army  it  would  have  been  only  in  the  character  of  an  invalid. 
Under  these  circumstances  it  cannot  be  surprising  that  he 
should  have  sought  repose  at  his  home  in  Virginia.  To  prove 
that  he  remained  on  terms  of  friendly  intercourse  with 
General  Greene,  we  give  a  letter  from  the  latter  to  him. 

"AUGUST  26,  1781. 

"DEAR  MORGAN. — Your  letter  of  24th  of  June  arrived 
safe  at  headquarters ;  and  your  compliments  to  Williams, 
Washington  and  I^ee  have  been  properly  distributed.  Noth- 
ing would  have  given  me  greater  pleasure  than  to  have  had 
you  with  me.  The  people  of  this  country  adore  you.  Had 
you  been  with  me  a  few  weeks  past,  you  could  have  had  it  in 
your  power  to  give  the  world  the  pleasure  of  reading  a  second 
Cowpens  affair ;  .  .  .  the  expedition  ought  to  have  realized  us 
six  hundred  men,  and  the  chances  were  more  than  fifty  times 
as  great  in  our  favor  as  they  were  at  Tarleton's  defeat.  Great 
generals  are  scarce :  there  are  few  Morgans  to  be  found." 

No  American  of  that  day  could  have  been  insensible  to 
the  merit  of  the  hero  of  the  Cowpens.  When  a  full  report  of 
the  victory  was  made  to  Congress,  it  passed  a  vote  of  thanks 
to  Morgan  and  his  officers,  and  directed  that  a  gold  medal 
should  be  prepared  for  him,  with  a  suitable  device  and  inscrip- 
tion expressing  their  sense  of  his  value. — J.  T.  HEADLEY. 


'so 


GENERAL  FRANCIS  MARION. 


FRANCIS  MARION,  the  "Swamp 
Fox ' '  of  the  American  Revolution, 
was  born  at  Winyaw,  near  George- 
town, South  Carolina,  in  1732.  He 
was  the  grandchild  of  a  family  of 
Huguenots  who,  in  1690,  had  sought 
shelter  here  from  the  storm  of  per- 
secution raging  in  France.  Francis 
was  the  youngest  of  the  six  children 
of  Gabriel  and  Esther  Marion.  As 
a  baby  he  was  so  diminutive  and 
feeble  that  Weems  says,  "  He  was  not  larger  than  a  New  Eng- 
land lobster. ' '  At  the  age  of  sixteen,  having  a  passion  for 
the  sea,  he  shipped  for  the  West  Indies.  A  storm  arose,  and 
the  vessel  foundered.  He  with  five  others  took  to  the  ship's 
boat,  and  it  was  seven  days  before  they  were  picked  up.  Two 
had  died  of  starvation,  and  Marion  and  the  other  three  barely 
escaped  with  their  lives.  This  cured  him  of  the  desire  for  a 
sailor's  life. 

In  1758  Marion  went  to  St.  John's,  and  settled  at  Pond 
Bluff.  The  following  year  he  entered  the  service  of  the  State, 
joining  a  company  of  horse  under  Captain  Moultrie  against 
the  Cherokee  Indians,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  daring. 
Colonel  James  Grant  held  the  command  of  the  Royal  Scots 
in  1761,  and  he  was  assisted  by  a  State  regiment  of  1200  men, 
led  by  Middleton.  Marion,  still  serving  under  Captain 
Moultrie  with  2600  men,  marched  from  Fort  George.  On  the 
yth  of  June  a  terrible  battle  was  fought  with  the  Indians  at 
Etchoee.  All  the  time  Marion  was  in  the  hottest  of  the  fight. 

20 1 


202  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

With  thirty  men  he  stormed  the  strongest  position  of  the 
Indians.  Fourteen  towns  of  the  Cherokees  were  burned  and 
their  country  laid  waste.  Marion  protested  against  this  sever- 
ity; said  he,  u  To  me  it  is  a  shocking  sight.  When  we  are 
gone  the  Indian  children  will  return  and  ask  their  mothers  : 
1  Who  did  this  ? '  '  The  white  people,  the  Christians, '  will 
be  the  reply." 

In  1775  Marion  was  chosen  to  the  Provincial  Congress  of 
South  Carolina  from  St.  John's.  Whilst  they  were  deliberat- 
ing, news  came  of  the  battle  of  Lexington.  They  at  once 
resolved  to  raise  two  regiments  of  infantry,  consisting  of  1 500 
men,  and  one  of  cavalry  numbering  450  men.  Marion  had 
charge  of  the  cavalry  as  captain  under  Colonel  Moultrie.  His 
commission  as  captain  was  dated  2ist  June,  17/5.  In  the 
same  year  he  assisted  in  the  capture  of  Fort  Johnson  from 
the  British.  He  was  now  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major,  and 
acted  as  such  at  Sullivan's  Island.  Owing  to  his  skill  in 
organization  and  his  strict  discipline  he  was  called  ' '  the  archi- 
tect of  the  Second  Regiment."  On  June  28,  1776,  when  the 
British  fleet  were  driven  from  Charleston,  Marion  greatly  dis- 
tinguished himself  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel.  Just  before  Charleston  surrendered  to  Sir  Henry 
Clinton,  Marion  injured  his  leg,  and  had  to  be  taken  home. 
This  providentially  saved  him  from  being  shut  up  in  the  city 
at  that  time. 

On  his  recovery  he  made  his  way  into  Virginia  and  joined 
the  army  of  Gates:  having  no  command,  he  accepted  the  posi- 
tion of  aide-de-camp  to  DeKalb.  In  the  crushing  defeat  at 
Camden,  Marion  escaped  with  30  men.  With  these  he  became 
a  successful  annoyance  to  the  British.  He  first  captured  a 
British  guard  of  three  times  his  strength  and  liberated  200 
American  prisoners.  He  cut  up  a  party  of  49  Tories,  taking 
their  ammunition,  baggage,  arms  and  horses.  His  little  force 
had  now  increased  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  men.  Governor 
Rutledge,  of  South  Carolina,  gave  him  a  commission  as  briga- 
dier-general, directing  him  to  protect  the  southwest  portion  of 
the  State.  This  work  he  did,  and  successfully  cut  off  sup- 
plies from  the  British.  He  harassed  in  every  way  their  oper- 
ations. He,  in  1780,  won  two  engagements.  The  first 


GENERAL   FRANCIS   MARION.  203 

against  a  party  of  Tories  on  the  Black  Mingo  River  ;  the 
second  against  a  band  of  Colonel  Tynes'  regulars  at  Tarcote. 
Tarleton,  the  British  general,  gave  Marion  the  name  of 
"  Swamp  Fox,"  so  impossible  was  it  to  get  near  him  after  he 
had  inflicted  a  blow  on  the  enemy.  Three  attacks  did  Marion 
make  on  Georgetown :  the  first  two  were  unsuccessful ;  but  the 
third  effort  proved  successful.  He  so  crippled  the  British 
cavalry  at  Parker's  Ferry  that  they  were  of  very  little  service 
to  the  enemy  during  the  remainder  of  the  war.  Until  the 
British  evacuated  Charleston  on  the  I4th  of  December,  1782, 
Marion  assisted  his  country's  cause. 

He  sat  as  State  Senator  from  1782  to  1790  ;  then,  retiring 
from  public  life,  he  removed  to  his  plantation  at  St.  John's. 
In  1784  he  married  Mary  Videau.  They  left  no  children.  He 
died  on  his  plantation  February  27,  1795,  his  last  words  being  : 
' '  Thank  God,  I  can  lay  my  hand  on  my  heart  and  say  that 
since  I  came  to  man's  estate,  I  have  never  done,  intentionally, 
wrong  to  any."  Francis  Marion  was  a  true  patriot,  an  active, 
brave  and  hardy  soldier  ;  his  conduct  was  most  generous. 
No  houses  were  burned  by  his  orders,  and  he  hated  making 
war  on  women  and  children.  He  and  his  comrades  slept  in 
the  swamps,  with  not  a  blanket  to  cover  them,  for  months 
together.  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  he  endured  with 
indifference.  Though  a  strict  disciplinarian,  he  was  beloved 
by  his  men.  Always  was  he  kind,  chivalric  and  gentle. 

THE  "  SWAMP  Fox." 

At  the  end  of  the  summer  of  1780  all  seemed  lost  in  South 
Carolina.  Charleston  was  taken,  and  Gates  had  been  totally 
defeated.  Nothing  like  an  organized  force  opposed  the  Brit- 
ish. Their  foraging  parties  swept  through  the  country  and 
insulted  the  inhabitants  without  hazard.  The  hopes  of  the 
most  sanguine  patriots  seemed  about  to  expire.  Darkness  and 
gloom  were  on  every  side.  It  was  at  this  crisis  that  the  true 
value  of  Francis  Marion  began  to  appear ;  and  if  the  man  de- 
serves more  admiration  who  struggles  against  the  current  of 
adversity  than  he  who  sails  with  a  prosperous  wind,  we  can- 
not refuse  to  admire  the  course  now  pursued  by  the  partisan 
of  South  Carolina. 


204  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

He  obeyed  a  summons  from  a  few  brave  men  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Williamsburg,  who,  after  accepting  British  protec- 
tion, had  been  required  by  Cornwallis  to  take  up  arms  against 
their  country.  Outraged  by  this  breach  of  faith,  they  threw 
off  the  fetters  they  had  assumed,  and  invited  Marion  to  come 
and  lead  them  in  the  warfare  they  intended  to  wage  against 
the  enemy.  About  the  i2th  of  August,  1780,  four  days  after 
the  defeat  of  Gates,  he  joined  the  little  band  at  Lynch' s 
Creek,  and  immediately  commenced  drilling  them  for  service. 
He  now  held  a  commission  as  general  from  Governor  Rut- 
ledge,  of  South  Carolina,  and  the  command  of  that  part  of  the 
State  in  which  he  intended  to  act  was  committed  to  his 
hands. 

Not  more  than  thirty  horsemen  were  at  first  assembled  ; 
but  after  the  arrival  of  their  commander  the  number  increased. 
"Marion's  Brigade"  was  formed,  and  it  was  soon  renowned 
throughout  the  country.  Tories  feared  it,  and  patriots  heard 
of  its  deeds  with  delight.  To  join  Marion,  to  be  one  of 
Marion's  men,  was  esteemed  the  highest  privilege  to  which  a 
young  man  could  aspire,  who  wished  to  serve  his  country. 
These  troopers  were  men  admirably  adapted  to  the  duty  they 
assumed.  Active  and  hardy  in  body,  they  were  capable  of 
enduring  fatigue  and  exposure  without  a  murmur ;  they  rode 
well,  and  accustomed  their  horses  to  the  privations  they  them- 
selves encountered.  They  used  the  rifle  with  unerring  skill ; 
swords  were  at  first  wanting ;  but  they  stripped  all  the  saw- 
mills of  the  neighborhood,  and  the  saws  were  converted  by 
rude  blacksmiths  into  sabres  for  the  men  ;  and  we  are  informed 
by  a  contemporary  that  their  rude  swords  were  so  efficient 
that  a  strong  trooper  never  failed  to  cut  down  an  adversary  at 
a  single  blow. 

Immediately  after  taking  command  of  his  troopers,  Marion 
advanced  silently  upon  the  squadron  of  Major  Gainey,  an 
English  partisan  officer  of  considerable  reputation,  and  before 
his  approach  was  known,  the  whole  party  were  his  prisoners. 
Emboldened  by  this  success,  and  by  the  surprise  it  produced, 
he  next  attempted  a  more  important  scheme.  A  party  of 
about  ninety  British  soldiers  passed  near  Nelson's  ferry,  con- 
ducting at  least  two  hundred  American  prisoners  to  Charles- 


GENERAI,  FRANCIS   MARION.  205 

ton.  These  captives  were  from  the  ill-fated  field  of  Camden. 
Marion  and  his  band  passed  the  ferry  about  an  hour  after  sun- 
set, and,  concealing  themselves  on  the  other  side,  awaited  the 
approach  of  the  detachment.  After  crossing,  the  English 
sought  the  first  public-house  they  could  find,  in  which  to 
pass  the  night,  and,  dreaming  not  of  danger,  the)'  spent  many 
hours  in  drinking  and  merriment,  and  finally  fell  asleep  in  a 
spacious  arbor  in  front  of  the  house,  leaving  drowsy  sentinels 
to  guard  their  slumbers.  In  a  moment  Marion  was  upon  them, 
the  sentinels  were  stricken  down,  and  several  of  the  detach- 
ment were  slain  before  they  knew  who  were  their  enemies. 
Starting  from  sleep,  they  found  themselves  invaded  by  bold 
troopers,  who  dashed  among  them  with  their  horses,  and  with 
loud  shouts  called  them  to  surrender.  The  English  asked  for 
quarter,  and  not  until  they  were  disarmed  and  their  prisoners 
were  all  released  did  they  discover  how  insignificant  was  the 
enemy  who  had  vanquished  them. 

This  exploit  was  soon  followed  by  others  of  an  equally 
daring  character.  Hearing  that  a  party  of  Tories  under  Cap- 
tain Burfield  were  assembling  on  the  Pedee  River,  the  Ameri- 
can put  his  men  in  motion,  and  after  a  rapid  ride  of  forty 
miles  came  upon  the  enemy  at  three  o'clock  in  the  morning. 
So  startling  was  the  assault  that  the  Tories  broke  and  dis- 
persed without  firing  a  single  shot.  Of  forty-nine  composing 
their  number,  thirty  were  either  killed  or  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  patriots.  From  these  two  parties  Marion  obtained  a 
welcome  supply  of  ammunition,  cartridge-boxes,  muskets  and 
horses,  which  enabled  him  materially  to  increase  his  own 
strength. 

The  English  officers  seem  to  have  been  greatly  astonished 
at  their  defeats.  While  the  whole  country  was  apparently  in 
their  power,  they  found  an  American  partisan  leading  his 
troops  through  the  very  heart  of  the  province,  dealing  rapid 
and  disabling  blows  upon  his  enemies,  alarming  the  Tories 
and  keeping  alive  the  spirit  of  resistance.  They  determined 
to  follow  him  with  an  overwhelming  force,  and  to  crush  him 
at  once;  but  they  found  his  prudence  equal  to  his  courage. 
With  more  than  two  hundred  British  regulars  advancing  in 
front  and  about  five  hundred  Tories  in  his  rear,  Marion  com- 


206  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

menced  a  retreat  which  was  conducted  with  consummate  skill 
and  success.  His  practice  was  to  dismiss  many  of  his  men  to 
their  homes,  receiving  from  each  his  word  of  honor  that  he 
would  return  when  summoned,  and  to  the  credit  of  these  suf- 
fering patriots  be  it  known  that  their  promises  in  this  respect 
were  never  violated.  At  the  head  of  a  small  band,  generally 
of  about  sixty  men,  Marion  then  plunged  into  the  swamps,  and 
concealing  each  trace  of  his  passage,  he  would  lie  concealed 
until  the  immediate  danger  was  over. 

Finding  that  the  enemy  had  abandoned  the  pursuit,  he 
again  turned  his  troops  South,  and  leaving  North  Carolina, 
advanced  cautiously  into  his  own  province.  Major  Wemyss, 
who  had  commanded  the  British  regulars,  had  retired  to 
Georgetown;  but  a  large  body  of  Tories  had  taken  post  at 
Shepherd's  Ferry,  on  the  Black  Mingo  River.  Against  this 
traitor  class  of  foes  Marion  was  always  signally  active,  for  he 
well  knew  their  influence  in  depressing  the  spirit  of  liberty 
in  the  country.  About  a  mile  below  Shepherd' s  '  Ferry  a 
long  bridge  of  planks  crossed  the  Black  Mingo,  and  this  was 
the  only  avenue  open  to  Marion.  As  his  troopers  entered 
upon  the  bridge,  the  trampling  of  their  horses  was  so  loud  as 
to  arouse  the  enemy,  and  immediately  an  alarm  gun  was  heard 
from  their  camp.  No  time  was  now  to  be  lost  :  Marion  gave 
the  word  to  charge,  and  the  whole  troop  passed  the  bridge'  at 
a  sweeping  gallop.  The  Tories  were  there  double  in  number, 
and  they  had  drawn  up  in  a  body  on  a  piece  of  rising  ground 
near  the  ferry.  A  heavy  fire  received  the  patriots  as  they 
advanced,  and  for  a  time  their  leading  corps  faltered;  but 
when  the  whole  number  came  into  action  their  onset  was  irre- 
sistible. After  losing  their  commander,  the  Tories  left  their 
ranks  and  fled  in  the  utmost  disorder.  Nearly  two-thirds  of 
their  number  were  either  killed  or  wounded,  and  many  were 
made  prisoners.  Had  they  not  been  alarmed  by  the  noise  at 
the  bridge,  it  is  probable  they  would  all  have  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  the  Americans.  It  is  said  that  after  this  conflict 
Marion  never  crossed  a  bridge  at  night  without  spreading 
blankets  upon  it  to  deaden  the  sound.  He  generally  pre- 
ferred to  cross  at  a  ford,  where  there  would  be  no  risk  of 
giving  a  premature  alarm. 


GENERAI,   FRANCIS   MARION.  207 

After  giving  his  men  a  season  of  rest  and  recreation, 
among  the  people  of  the  State  who  were  friendly  to  their 
cause,  he  called  them  again  to  his  side  and  prepared  for  active 
proceedings.  His  vigilant  scouts  informed  him  that  Colonel 
Tynes  was  raising  a  body  of  Tories  at  Tarcote,  in  the  forks  of 
Black  River,  and  that  he  had  brought  from  Charleston  a  full 
supply  of  saddles  and  bridles,  blankets,  pistols  and  broad- 
swords, powder  and  ball  for  his  new  levies.  These  articles 
were  precisely  what  Marion's  men  wanted,  and  they  were 
stimulated  to  unwonted  energy  by  the  hope  of  accomplishing 
two  objects — the  defeat  of  the  Tories  and  the  seizure  of  their 
munitions.  Tynes  suspected  no  danger  and  used  but  little 
precaution.  At  midnight  Marion  and  his  troops  approached 
and  found  their  enemy.  Some  were  asleep,  some  lying  on  the 
ground  in  careless  conversation,  many  were  at  cards,  and  the 
very  words  they  uttered  were  heard  by  the  Americans  as  they 
advanced.  Instantly  the  attack  was  made  and  the  Tories 
took  to  flight,  and  all  who  escaped  concealed  themselves  in 
the  swamps  bordering  on  the  Black  River.  Few  were  killed; 
but  Colonel  Tynes  and  many  of  his  men,  together  with  all 
the  military  wealth  he  had  brought  out  of  Charleston,  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  victors.  Marion  did  not  lose  a  single 
man. 

In  this  succession  of  gallant  deeds  the  American  proved 
his  ability  and  thoroughly  established  his  reputation.  The 
British  generals  had  hoped  that  the  country  might  be  consid- 
ered as  conquered;  but  while  such  a  foe  was  among  them  they 
felt  that  they  had  little  cause  for  triumph.  We  have  a  letter 
from  Cornwallis  himself,  in  which  he  says,  ' '  Colonel  Marion 
had  so  wrought  on  the  minds  of  the  people,  partly  by  the 
terror  of  his  threats  and  cruelty  of  his  punishments,  and 
partly  by  the  promise  of  plunder,  that  there  was  scarcely  an 
inhabitant  between  the  Santee  and  Pedee  that  was  not  in 
arms  against  us.  Some  parties  had  even  crossed  the  Santee, 
and  carried  terror  to  the  gates  of  Charleston."  Those  who 
knew  Marion  personally,  and  who  have  given  sketches  of  his 
life,  have  refuted  the  charge  of  cruelty  here  brought  against 
him.  He  was  proverbially  mild  and  humane  in  his  disposi- 
tion; he  often  saved  the  lives  of  Tories  whom  his  men  would 


208  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

have  hanged  in  retaliation  for  similar  outrages  inflicted  upon 
the  patriots  ;  even  though  his  own  nephew,  Gabriel  Marion, 
was  murdered  while  asking  for  quarter,  when  afterwards  the 
supposed  murderer  was  shot  by  one  of  his  troopers,  he  sternly 
censured  the  deed,  and  would  have  punished  the  perpetrator 
could  he  have  been  detected. 

Renewed  efforts  were  made  to  crush  this  dangerous  foe. 
Colonel  Tarleton  left  the  room  to  which  he  had  been  confined 
by  sickness  in  Charleston,  and  placed  himself  at  the  head  of 
his  dragoons  with  the  firm  resolve  not  to  yield  the  pursuit 
until  he  had  secured  the  enemy.  Marion  watched  his  course, 
and  adopted  his  own  with  ceaseless  caution.  At  the  planta- 
tion of  General  Richardson,  the  English  partisan  believed  his 
triumph  complete.  Marion  was  at  a  wood-yard  within  a  mile 
of  him  ;  but  warned  by  the  flames  of  the  general's  house  that 
his  pursuer  was  near,  he  took  to  flight,  and  when  Tarleton 
arrived  he  was  filled  with  rage  on  finding  that  the  prize  was 
gone.  Through  forests  and  swamps,  thorny  hedges  and 
tangled  undergrowth,  he  followed  the  retreating  troops,  but 
never  came  near  enough  to  strike  a  blow.  At  length,  on 
arriving"  at  Benbow's  Ferry  on  Black  River,  Marion  deter- 
mined to  make  a  stand.  The  ferry  was  rapid  and  dangerous, 
and  behind  him  was  Ox  Swamp,  through  which  only  three 
passes  were  practicable.  His  men  were  perfectly  familiar 
with  the  localities,  and  having  thrown  up  a  breastwork  of 
logs,  and  made  other  defences,  they  prepared  their  rifles  for 
the  English  dragoons.  Had  Tarleton  attempted  to  carry  their 
position,  he  would,  in  the  language  of  Judge  James,  ' '  have 
exposed  his  force  to  such  sharp-shooting  as  he  had  not  yet 
experienced,  and  that  in  a  place  where  he  could  not  have 
acted  with  either  his  artillery  or  cavalry."  But  he  prudently 
turned  back.  "  Come,  boys,"  he  said,  "  let  us  go  back.  We 
will  soon  find  the  game  cock  (General  Sumter)  ;  but  as  for 
this  swamp  fox,  the  devil  himself  could  not  catch  him." 
The  devil  would  certainly  have  been  a  very  appropriate  com- 
rade for  Colonel  Tarleton  in  his  partisan  excursions  through 
the  Carolinas. 

Marion  planned  an  attack  upon  Georgetown,  which  had 
long  been  held  by  a  British  garrison ;  but  in  consequence  of 


GENERAL  FRANCIS   MARION.  209 

mismanagement  on  the  part  of  his  subordinates,  the  attempt 
failed  entirely.  He  now  retired  to  his  favorite  retreat  on 
Snow's  Island,  which  lay  at  the  point  where  Lynch' s  Creek 
and  the  Pedee  River  unite.  Here  the  camp  of  the  partisan 
was  regularly  established  in  a  spot  admirably  suited  to  his 
purposes.  Running  water  enclosed  it  on  all  sides,  and  the 
current  of  Lynch 's  Creek  was  almost  always  encumbered  by 
drifting  logs  and  timber.  Deep  swamps  formed  the  borders  of 
the  island,  and  in  the  cane-brakes  great  quantities  of  game 
and  live-stock  might  generally  be  found.  The  middle  part 
was  more  elevated,  and  covered  with  tall  forest  trees ;  here 
Marion  established  his  stronghold,  and  increased  the  natural 
defences  of  the  island  by  diligent  labor.  From  this  retreat  he 
could  sally  out  in  any  direction,  and  by  sudden  strokes 
astonish  the  Tories  who  were  gathering  in  aid  of  British 
power. 

An  incident  occurred  which  has  been  regarded  as  worthy 
to  furnish  the  subject  of  a  historical  painting.  An  exchange 
of  prisoners  having  been  agreed  upon,  a  young  English 
officer  was  sent  from  Georgetown  to  complete  the  arrangement 
with  Marion.  On  arriving  near  the  camp,  he  was  carefully 
blindfolded,  and  was  thus  conducted  into  the  presence  of  the 
American  General.  When  the  bandage  was  removed,  he  saw 
before  him  a  scene  for  which  he  was  not  prepared.  Lofty 
trees  surrounded  him,  casting  a  sombre  shade  over  all  objects 
beneath  them :  under  these  were  lying  in  listless  groups  the 
men  belonging  to  the  renowned  partisan  brigade.  Active 
forms  and  limbs,  giving  promise  of  great  muscular  power, 
were  clad  in  rude  costumes  which  had  already  seen  much 
service.  Rifles  and  sabres  were  seen  among  the  trees,  and 
horses  were  around  for  instantaneous  motion.  Before  him 
stood  Marion  himself,  small  in  stature,  slight  in  person,  dark 
and  swarthy  in  complexion,  with  a  quiet  aspect,  but  a  brilliant 
and  searching  eye.  Scarcely  could  the  officer  believe  that 
this  was  indeed  the  man  whose  n°me  had  spread  terror  among 
all  the  enemies  of  liberty  in  southern  America.  After  the 
business  before  them  had  been  properly  arranged,  the  English- 
man was  about  to  retire;  but  Marion  pressed  him  to  stay  to 
dinner.  The  bewildered  officer  looked  round  him  in  vain  for 


210 


HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 


tables  or  plates,  knives  or  forks,  roast-ineats  or  savory  vegeta- 
bles ;  but  his  suspense  was  soon  to  terminate.  Sweet  potatoes 
yet  smoking  from  the  ashes  were  placed  upon  a  piece  of  bark 
and  set  before  the  American  General  and  his  guest.  This 
was  the  dinner,  and  while  the  officer  pretended  to  eat,  he 
asked  many  questions.  ' '  Doubtless  this  is  an  accidental  meal ; 
you  live  better  in  general."  "No,"  was  the  reply,  "we 
often  fare  much  worse. "  "Then  I  hope  at  least  you  draw 
noble  pay  to  compensate?"  "Not  a  cent,  sir,"  replied 
Marion,  "not  a  cent!"  Lost  in  amazement,  the  messenger 
returned  to  Georgetown,  and  when  questioned  as  to  his 
seriousness,  he  declared  that  he  had  much  cause  to  be  serious, 
' '  he  had  seen  an  American  general  and  his  officers  without 
pay,  and  almost  without  clothes,  living  on  roots  and  drinking 
water,  all  for  liberty!  What  chance  have  we  against  such 
men  ? "  In  this  rude  scene  might  be  found  one  of  the  most 
glorious  triumphs  of  the  American  Revolution. 

— J.  T.  HEADLEY. 


THOSE  who  are  familiar  with  the  com- 
mon limits  of  history  may  be  surprised 
at  the  assertion  that  no  nation  has  oc- 
cupied so  long  the  stage  of  the  world, 
or  performed  a  grander  part  thereon 
than  ancient  Egypt.  With  the  dawn 
of  the  Nineteenth  Century  came  the 
decipherment  of  the  hieroglyphics, 
furnishing  a  clear  revelation  of  the 
true  history  of  that  country,  its  civili- 
zation, arts,  sciences,  literature,  gov- 
ernment and  military  conquests.  She 
presents  to  the  admiration  of  the  mod- 
ern world  her  long  series  of  works  of  architecture,  sculpture 
and  even  painting.  Her  kings  and  warriors,  engineers  and 
artists  are  in  no  wise  inferior  to  the  Greek  or  Roman  in  the 
excellence  of  their  works  or  in  the  magnitude  of  their  enter- 
prises. 

The  exploits,  fabulous  and  otherwise,  of  numerous 
Egyptian  kings  were  assigned  by  the  classical  narrators  to 
the  sole  credit  of  one  hero,  whom  they  called  ' '  Sesostris. ' ' 
We  know  now  what  the  Greeks  did  not,  that  his  right  name 
and  title  is  Ramses  II.  There  are  echoes  from  the  remote 
antiquity  of  Egypt  itself,  telling  of  other  hero  kings  who 
were  called,  more  deservedly  than  Ramses  II.,  the  "Great," 
for  instance,  Antef  the  Great,  Thothmes  III.  the  Great,  of  the 
XI.  and  XVIII.  dynasties  respectively.  But  still  Ramses  II. 
was  eminent  enough  to  be  entitled  to  the  epithet.  The  infor- 
mation as  to  the  works  he  accomplished  and  the  conquests  he 
made  has  come  down  to  us  with  very  full  details.  For  Ramses 

211 


212  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

himself  caused  Pentaur's  great  panegyric  on  the  King's  valor 
at  Kadesh,  to  be  engraved  on  the  walls  of  the  temples  every- 
where throughout  Egypt. 

One  of  the  most  recent  wonderful  discoveries  made  in 
Egypt  was  that  of  the  mummies  of  a  number  of  the  Kings, 
Queens  and  members  of  the  royal  families  of  the  Thothmes' 
and  Ramses'  dynasties  (the  XVIII.  and  XIX.),  in  the  hiding- 
place  of  Deir-el-Bahari.  They  all  now  lie  in  state  at  the 
great  Egyptian  museum  at  Gizeh.  There  the  tourist  can 
look  upon  the  great  warrior  Kings,  Thothmes  III.,  Seti  I., 
Ramses  II.,  who  helped  to  make  ancient  Egypt  powerful  and 
illustrious. 

Ramses  II.,  the  Sesostris  of  the  Greeks,  was  the  grandson 
of  Ramses  I.,  the  founder  of  the  XIX.  Egyptian  dynasty, 
and  succeeded  his  father,  Seti  I.  about  1490  B.C.  He  was 
the  "Grand  Monarch"  of  Egypt.  His  long  reign  of  sixty- 
seven  years,  his  colossal  buildings,  his  numerous  wars,  and 
the  victories  he  claimed,  all  make  him  the  prototype  of 
Louis  XIV-,  of  France.  For  a  time,  even  from  boyhood,  he 
had  been  associated  in  the  government  with  his  father.  The 
death  of  Seti  was  a  signal  for  a  renewal  of  the  war  between 
Egypt  and  the  Khiti  or  Hittites.  Kadesh  on  the  Orontes, 
near  the  northeast  corner  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  became 
the  centre  of  the  war. 

Our  description  of  the  Syrian  campaign  is  taken  from 
M.  Maspero,  the  highest  authority  upon  the  affairs  of  ancient 
Egypt.  The  king  of  the  Khiti  or  Hittites,  Khitasar,  con- 
voked his  vassals  and  his  allies  and  broke  with  Egypt  The 
hope  of  the  pillage  decided  Ilion,  Pedasos,  Gerges,  the 
Mysians,  and  the  Dardanians  to  join  with  the  Khiti  against 
Sesostris.  The  Trojan  bands  crossed  the  peninsula  of  Asia 
Minor  and  encamped  in  the  valley  of  the  Orontes,  three 
hundred  leagues  from  their  own  country.  Notwithstanding 
our  exaggerated  ideas  of  the  immobility  of  the  people  of  the 
Orient,  the  composition  of  the  Egyptian  army  that  Ramses 
opposed  to  the  confederates  would  alone  suffice  to  show  with 
what  facility  those  nations  moved  to  vast  distances.  It  con- 
tained, by  the  side  of  the  pure  Egyptians,  the  Libyans,  the 
Mazion,  and  the  Sardinians.  Ramses  established  his  base 


RAMSES   II.  213 

of  operations  on  the  Arabian  frontier  of  Egypt  in  the  city  of 
Raamses.  He  crossed  Canaan  and  the  northern  countries 
rapidly,  and  halted  to  the  southwest  of  the  city  of  Kadesh 
for  the  purpose  of  reconnoitering  the  position  of  the  enemy. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Prince  of  the  Khiti  being  well  in- 
formed of  his  movements,  conceived  and  executed  an  able 
manoeuvre  which  put  the  Egyptian  army  within  a  hair's 
breath  of  destruction. 

One  day  two  Arabs  sought  an  interview  with  Ramses  and 
said:  "Our  brethren,  chiefs  of  the  tribes  united  with  the 
vile  chief  of  the  Khiti,  sent  us  to  speak  to  his  Majesty.  We 
wish  to  serve  the  Pharaoh  with  whom  be  life,  health  and 
strength.  We  renounce  the  vile  chief  of  the  Khiti,  who  is  in 
the  country  of  Khalupu  where,  through  fear  of  the  Pharaoh, 
he  has  retreated  rapidly."  The  King,  deceived  by  this  plaus- 
ible speech,  felt  assured  against  surprise  by  the  presumed  dis- 
tance of  the  enemy,  Khalupu  (Aleppo)  being  forty  leagues 
north  of  Kadesh.  He,  therefore,  advanced  confidently, 
escorted  only  by  his  military  staff,  while  the  bulk  of  his 
army  followed  at  some  distance.  The  Khiti,  however,  had 
formed  an  ambuscade  to  the  northeast  of  Kadesh.  Their 
number  was  very  great,  for  one  of  them,  the  Prince  of 
Khalupu,  had  set  in  array  18,000  select  soldiers,  besides  a 
well-drilled  infantry,  2,500  chariots  each  carrying  three  men. 

But  suddenly  Ramses  conceived  some  suspicion,  and 
ordered  the  spies  to  be  severely  beaten  till  they  confessed  that 
the  forces  of  the  allies  were  concentrated  behind  Kadesh, 
and  only  awaited  a  favorable  occasion  to  show  themselves. 
Ramses  sent  an  express  to  hasten  the  main  body  of  his  army. 
His  council  of  war  was  still  in  consultation  when  he  received 
word  that  the  enemy  was  in  movement.  The  Prince  of  the 
Khiti  quickly  threw  his  forces  to  the  south  of  Kadesh  while 
Ramses  was  to  the  north  of  it,  and  attacking  the  centre, 
separated  in  two  the  Egyptian  army.  Ramses  himself  led  at 
the  head  of  his  division.  Eight  times  in  succession  he  threw 
himself  on  the  foe,  broke  through  their  ranks,  rallied  his 
dispersed  troops,  and  sustained  the  shock  for  the  rest  of  the 
day.  About  dusk  the  Khiti  retreated  before  the  main  body 
of  the  Egyptian  army  which  had  now  formed  into  line. 


214  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS- 

The  decisive  blow  was  struck  the  next  day  ;  the  confederates, 
driven  back  at  many  points,  sought  safety  by  flight.  Some 
corps  of  the  Syrian  army  fled  to  Orontes,  threw  themselves 
into  it,  and  many  were  drowned  in  the  attempt  to  cross  by 
swimming.  The  vanquished  probably  would  all  have  per- 
ished, had  not  a  sortie  of  the  garrison  of  Kadesh  checked  the 
progress  of  the  Egyptians,  and  afforded  an  opportunity  for  the 
wounded  and  the  fugitives  to  enter  the  city. 

Against  all  expectation,  the  country  of  Canaan  and  the 
neighboring  provinces  arose  in  the  rear  of  the  victorious 
army.  The  King  of  the  Khiti  regained  his  courage,  repaired 
his  losses  and  broke  the  truce ;  all  Syria  was  on  fire  from  the 
banks  of  the  Euphrates  to  the  shores  of  the  Nile.  But  there 
were  no  more  great  battles ;  petty  actions,  skirmishes  and 
sieges  occupied  the  space  of  fifteen  years,  during  which 
Ascalon  was  taken  despite  the  heroic  defence  of  its  inhab- 
itants, and  two  cities  of  the  Khiti  were  captured.  The  war, 
thus  protracted  from  year  to  year,  was  ended  at  last  by  a  treaty 
of  peace,  offensive  and  defensive.  It  stipulated  that  the  peace 
should  be  eternal  between  the  two  peoples  ;  that  they  would 
assist  each  other  against  the  enemies  of  either.  It  contained 
clauses  for  the  protection  of  their  commerce  and  industries, 
and  for  the  extradition  of  fugitive  criminals.  "  Equality  and 
reciprocity — such  were  the  principal  conditions  of  this  treaty 
that  may  be  considered  the  most  ancient  monument  of  the 
science  of  diplomacy. ' ' 

The  peace  was  made  permanent  by  the  marriage  of  Ramses 
with  Ur-mas-nefru-ra,  the  daughter  of  the  King  of  Khiti. 
Thus  terminated  the  wars  of  Ramses  II.  in  the  thirty-fourth 
year  of  his  reign.  Tradition,  inspired  doubtless  by  the 
splendor  of  his  monuments,  made  its  triumphs  still  more 
splendid  and  extensive  than  they  were  in  reality.  According 
to  the  Greek  historians,  Sesostris  penetrated  to  the  heart  of 
Asia,  subjected  Media,  Persia,  Bactria,  India  ;  then  returned 
through  the  deserts  of  Scythia. 

During  forty-six  years  preceding  the  King's  death,  by 
favor  of  the  profound  peace  that  existed,  he  indulged  his  taste 
for  monumental  constructions.  Truly,  Ramses  II.  was  the 
royal  builder  par  excellence.  Throughout  the  sixty-seven 


RAMSES  II.  215 

years  of  his  sole  reign,  he  had  leisure  to  complete  those 
which  his  predecessor  had  begun.  The  grand  cave  temple 
at  Ipsamboul  (or  Abu-Simbel)  was  designed  to  commemorate 
his  early  campaigns  against  Ethiopia  and  Syria.  He  im- 
proved the  temples  at  Luxor  and  at  Tanis,  the  Ramesseum, 
Abydos,  Memphis,  and  Bubastis.  For  these  constructions  he 
worked  the  quarries  of  Silsilis  and  the  mines  of  Sinai.  Upon 
these  great  buildings  labored  the  thousands  of  captives, 
Asiatic  and  African,  acquired  by  his  military  operations.  It 
is  even  charged  that  after  the  Asiatic  wars  were  terminated, 
man-hunts  were  organized  on  a  monstrous  scale  throughout 
the  whole  country  of  the  Soudan  in  order  to  supply  the  needed 
laborers,  and  the  principal  episodes  of  these  negro-hunts 
were  sculptured  on  the  walls  of  temples  as  glorious  exploits. 
This  fact  is  in  one  way  a  proof  of  the  growth  of  civilization. 
Native  subjects  were  no  longer  employed  as  by  the  predeces- 
sors of  Ramses  in  these  mighty  works  intended  to  im- 
mortalize their  names. 

Ramses  II.  appears  from  his  statues  to  have  been  the 
handsomest  of  all  the  Egyptian  kings  and  to  have  had  a 
Semitic  face.  He  also  introduced  the  Semitic  practice  of 
polygamy,  but  showed  special  affection  for  two  of  his  wives. 
He  died  in  the  eightieth  year  of  his  age,  about  1410  B.C.,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Menephthah,  his  fourteenth  and  eldest 
surviving  son. 

PENTAUR'S  EGYPTIAN  EPIC. 

(Pentaur,  the  royal  scribe  of  Ramses  II.  composed  a  remarkable 
poem  on  "The  Campaign  of  Kadesh,"  a  panegyric  of  the  exploits  of 
his  sovereign,  which  was  engraved  on  the  walls  of  many  temples.  We 
give  considerable  extracts  from  the  translation  by  Prof.  Lushington.) 

The  vile  chief  of  Cheta  [the  Khiti  or  Hittites],  with  many 
allies  accompanying  him,  lay  ambushed  to  the  northwest  of 
Kadesh.  Now  King  Ramses  was  all  alone,  no  other  with  him, 
the  brigade  of  Ammon  marching  after  him,  the  brigade  of 
Ptah  in  the  centre,  the  brigade  of  Set  on  the  border.  Then 
the  vile  Cheta  chief  made  an  advance  with  men  and  horses 
numerous  as  sand  ;  then  they  charged  the  brigade  of  Ra 
Harmachis  in  the  centre,  as  they  were  marching  on  unpre- 


2l6  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

pared  to  fight  Foot  and  horse  of  King  Ramses  gave  way 
before  them.  This  news  was  told  the  king  ;  then  he  rose  as 
Mentu,  he  seized  his  arms  for  battle  ;  the  great  horse  that 
bore  him — '  Victory  in  Thebes '  his  name.  The  King  drew 
himself  up,  he  pierced  the  line  of  the  foe,  the  vile  Cheta  ;  he 
was  all  alone,  no  other  with  him.  When  he  turned  to  survey 
behind  him,  he  found  there  encircled  him  2, 500  chariots,  three 
men  to  a  car. 

Then  said  King  Ramses,  ' '  Where  art  thou,  my  father 
Ammon?  What  father  denies  his  son?  For  have  I  done 
aught  without  thee  ?  Have  I  not  stepped,  looking  to  thee, 
not  transgressing  the  decisions  of  thy  mouth  ?  Sovran  Lord 
of  Egypt,  who  makest  to  bow  down  the  peoples  that  with- 
stand thee  ;  what  are  these,  Amu,  to  thy  heart  ?  Ammon 
brings  them  low  who  know  not  God.  Have  I  not  made  thee 
many  monuments?  Filled  thy  temple  with  my  spoils? 
Built  thee  a  house  for  millions  of  years  ?  Given  treasures  to 
thy  shrine?  Completed  the  building  of  thy  court?  [This 
probably  refers  to  the  addition  of  the  vast  hypostyle  hall 
of  one  hundred  and  forty  columns  before  the  Temple  of 
Ammon,  at  Karnak.]  I  call  on  thee,  my  father  Ammon.  I 
am  amid  multitudes  unknown,  nations  gathered  against  me  ; 
I  am  alone,  no  other  with  me  ;  my  foot  and  horse  have  left 
me.  I  called  aloud  to  them,  none  of  them  heard  ;  I  cried  to 
them.  I  find  Ammon  worth  more  than  millions  of  soldiers. 
No  works  of  many  men  avail,  Ammon,  against  thee."  My 
cry  rang  unto  Hermonthis  ;  Ra  heard  when  I  called  ;  he  put 
his  hand  to  me,  "Ramses  Miamon,  I  am  with  thee,  I  thy 
father  Ra ;  my  hand  is  with  thee.  I  am  Sovran  Lord  of 
Victory,  loving  valor." 

I  became  as  Mentu  ;  I  shoot  to  the  right ;  I  seize  on  my 
left  ;  I  find  twenty-five  hundred  chariots  ;  I  am  amidst  them. 
Then  were  they  overthrown  before  my  steeds  ;  their  hearts 
shrank  within  them  ;  their  hands  all  dropped  ;  they  knew  not 
how  to  shoot ;  they  found  no  heart  to  grasp  the  spear ;  I  made 
them  fall  into  the  water  as  fall  crocodiles  ;  they  tumbled  head- 
long one  over  another  ;  I  slew  them.  Then  the  vile  chief  of 
Cheta  stood  amid  his  army  to  see  the  prowess  of  King 
Ramses.  Charging  the  midst  of  them  fiercer  than  flame,  I 


RAMSES  II.  217 

rushed  upon  them  ;  I  was  as  Mentu.  I  hew  at  them  to  slay 
them.  I  kept  slaying  them  ;  none  escaped  me  ;  I  gave  a  call 
to  my  foot  and  horse,  saying,  "Be  firm,  be  firm,  behold  my 
victory." 

Now  when  Menna,  my  charioteer,  saw  me  thus  encircled 
by  many  chariots,  he  cowered,  his  heart  quailed,  great  terror 
entered  his  limbs;  he  said  to  the  King,  "My  gracious  Lord, 
Prince  revered,  valiant  exceedingly,  protector  of  Egypt  in 
day  of  battle,  verily  we  stand  alone  amidst  the  foe  ;  how  can 
we  save  ourselves,  King  Ramses,  my  gracious  Lord  ?  ' '  The 
King  said  to  his  charioteer,  "Courage,  courage,  my  driver, 
I  will  pierce  them  as  a  hawk  ;  I  will  slay  and  hew  them,  cast 
them  to  the  dust.  Ammon  brings  very  low  them  that  know 
not  God,  who  brightens  not  his  face  on  millions  of  them." 

King  Ramses  dashed  into  the  van,  then  he  pierced  the 
foe,  the  caitiff  Cheta  six  times,  one  and  all  he  pierced  them. 
Then  the  king  called  to  his  archers  and  cavalry,  likewise  to 
his  chiefs  who  failed  to  fight:  "Had  I  not  stood  as  Royal 
Master,  ye  were  down-stricken.  Never  did  any  Royal  Master 
for  his  soldiers  what  King  Ramses  did  for  you ;  ye  have  not 
performed  my  behests,  my  archers  and  cavalry.  Lo  !  ye  have 
played  cowards  all  together,  not  one  of  you  stood  to  aid  me 
while  I  had  to  fight.  Blessed  be  Ammon.  Lo !  I  am  over 
Egypt,  as  my  father  Ra ;  great  shame  on  that  act  of  my  foot 
and  horse,  greater  than  to  tell,  for  lo  !  I  achieve  my  victories. 
I  was  all  alone,  no  other  with  me,  no  chiefs  behind,  no  mar- 
shals, no  captains,  no  officers.  All  peoples  saw,  and  will  tell 
my  name  to  limits  of  lands  unknown." 

Morning  lighted  the  field  of  Katesh.  Then  my  soldiers 
came  glorifying,  extolling  my  prowess :  "What  a  goodly  deed 
of  valor !  Firm  in  heart,  thou  hast  saved  thine  army,  thy 
cavalry,  son  of  Turn :  spoiling  Cheta-land  by  thy  victorious 
sword,  Royal  Conqueror,  none  is  like  thee !  O  King,  thou 
great  of  heart,  first  in  the  fray,  thou  reckest  not  for  all  peoples 
banded  together.  Without  gainsaying,  thou  guardest  Egypt, 
chastisest  lands  of  thy  foes,  thou  bruisest  the  back  of  Cheta 
for  ever."  Then  the  king  addressed  his  foot  and  horse,  like- 
wise his  chiefs  who  failed  to  fight :  ' '  Not  well  done  of  one  of 
you,  your  leaving  me  alone  amid  the  foe;  there  came  no 


218 


HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 


chiefs,  officer  or  captain  of  host  to  aid  me.  I  fought,  repelling 
millions  of  tribes,  all  alone.  '  Victory  in  Thebes '  and  '  Neb- 
rahuta '  (my  horses),  they  are  all  I  found  to  succor  me.  I  will 
let  them  eat  corn  before  Ra  daily  when  I  am  in  my  royal 
palace  ;  these  are  they  found  in  the  midst  of  the  foe,  and  my 
Marshal,  Menna  my  Squire,  with  the  officers  of  my  staff  who 
were  near  me,  the  witnesses  of  my  conflict.  King  Ramses 
prevailed  over  them,  he  slew  them,  they  escaped  not,  they 
were  overthrown  under  his  steeds. 

"Dread  of  his  might  is  in  every  heart,  he  protects  his 
army,  all  nations  come  to  the  great  name,  falling  down  and 
adoring  his  noble  countenance.  Ammon  hailed  his  form, 
saying:  'Glory  to  thee,  son  loved  of  us,  Ramses  Miamon,  to 
whom  we  grant  festivities  for  ever  on  the  throne  of  thy  father 
Turn.  All  lands  are  overthrown  under  his  feet ;  he  has  quelled 
all  enemies.'  " — Translated  by  PROF.  LUSHINGTON. 


SOLON, 

THE  ATHENIAN  LAWGIVER. 


THE  name  of  Solon  has  become  pro- 
verbial as  that  of  a  wise  lawgiver, 
who  gave  to  his  State  a  Constitution 
which  established  internal  harmony 
and  promoted  its  proper  develop- 
ment. He  was  one  of  the  Seven 
Sages  of  Greece,  and  a  descendant 
of  Codrus,  the  last  King  of  Athens. 
He  was  born  in  the  Island  of  Salamis 
about  638  B.C.  In  his  youth  he 
was  a  merchant  and  visited  foreign 
countries,  partly  to  improve  his  fortune,  and  partly  to  gratify 
his  curiosity  and  to  gain  experience  of  men,  manners  and 
institutions.  In  his  boyhood  the  Megarians  had  seized  and 
occupied  Salamis,  and  the  Athenians  were  so  imbecile  and 
demoralized  by  discord  and  faction,  that  they  failed  to  recover 
it  until  Solon,  now  a  man,  wrote  a  poem  on  the  loss  of  his 
native  Salamis.  Having  thus  excited  the  martial  spirit  of  the 
people,  he  was  given  command  of  an  expedition  and  led  a  force 
which  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Megarians.  This 
military  achievement  led  to  his  political  career.  The  Athe- 
nian State  was  torn  by  violent  dissensions  of  parties,  and  under 
the  old  oppressive  laws  of  Draco,  many  of  the  people  had 
become  slaves  or  insolvent  debtors  liable  to  be  reduced  to 
slavery.  There  were  three  parties  thus  described  by  Plutarch : 
"The  inhabitants  of  the  mountains  were  for  a  democracy; 
those  of  the  plains  for  an  oligarchy,  and  those  of  the  sea-coast 
contended  for  a  mixed  kind  of  government." 

Solon,  having  been  elected  archon  in  594  B.C.,  began  to 
lay  the  stable  foundations  of  the  liberty  and  prosperity  of 

219 


220  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

Athens.  His  reputation  for  justice  caused  him  to  be  accepted 
as  a  mediator  between  the  opposing  parties  of  rich  and  poor. 
In  his  efforts  to  ameliorate  the  political  and  moral  condition 
of  the  people,  he  invoked  the  power  of  religion,  and  invited 
to  Athens  Epimenides,  who  was  reputed  an  inspired  prophet. 
His  visit  is  said  to  have  had  a  salutary  effect  in  abating 
superstitions,  malignant  passions  and  imaginary  evils.  As 
archon,  Solon  had  full  authority  to  reorganize  the  State 
and  give  it  a  new  code  of  laws.  The  nobles,  who  were  the 
ruling  class,  had  reduced  the  smaller  proprietors  to  depend- 
ence and  poverty  by  usury  and  oppressive  laws.  Solon 
reformed  the  Constitution,  abolished  slavery  and  relieved 
debtors  by  a  reduction  of  the  rate  of  interest.  He  is  said  to 
have  annulled  all  mortgages.  ' '  This  was  the  first  of  his  pub- 
lic acts,"  says  Plutarch,  "  that  debts  should  be  forgiven,  and 
that  no  man  should  take  the  body  of  a  debtor  for  security." 
Though  many  citizens  urged  him  to  follow  the  example  of 
successful  leaders  in  other  Greek  cities,  and  make  himself 
tyrant  or  King  of  Athens,  he  refused.  The  bloody  laws  of 
Draco,  except  those  for  the  punishment  of  murder,  were 
annulled,  citizens  who  had  been  exiled  were  recalled,  and  an 
amnesty  restored  those  who  had  been  deprived  of  the  fran- 
chise for  lighter  offenses.  An  important  feature  of  his  new 
Constitution  was  the  substitution  of  property  for  pedigree  as 
a  qualification  for  honors  and  offices.  He  retained  (some  say, 
created)  the  Senate  or  Council  of  the  Areopagus,  an  aristocratic 
body,  consisting  of  men  who  had  been  good  archons.  The 
citizens  were  divided  into  four  classes  according  to  a  graduated 
scale  of  income  or  estate.  The  first  class  consisted  of  the 
richest  men,  and  they  only  were  eligible  to  the  archonship 
and  other  high  offices.  The  fourth  class,  who  were  the  poor- 
est, could  not  hold  any  office ;  but  they  could  vote  and  they 
were  exempt  from  direct  taxes,  and  could  take  part  in  the 
popular  assembly. 

A  body  of  six  thousand  citizens  was  annually  elected  to 
act  as  jurors  in  trials  for  political  offenses, — by  which  the 
people  acquired  complete  control  over  public  affairs.  The 
laws  of  Solon  fostered  commerce  and  manufactures.  Having 
been  asked  whether  he  had  given  the  Athenians  the  best  of 


SOLON,    THE  ATHENIAN  LAWGIVER.  221 

all  laws,  he  answered,  "The  best  they  are  capable  of  receiv- 
ing. "  "  The  most  peculiar  and  surprising  of  his  laws, ' '  says 
Plutarch,  ' '  is  that  which  declares  a  man  infamous  who  stands 
neutral  in  time  of  sedition."  After  the  completion  of  his 
legislative  work,  he  found  himself  subjected  to  much  impor- 
tunity and  vexation  from  the  questions  of  the  curious  and  the 
cavils  and  censures  of  the  discontented.  ' '  Under  pretence  of 
traffic  he  set  sail  for  another  country,  having  obtained  leave 
for  ten  years'  absence"  (Plutarch).  He  visited  Asia  Minor, 
Cyprus  and  Egypt,  collecting  and  diffusing  knowledge. 
Having  returned  to  Athens  in  old  age,  he  did  not  recover 
power;  but  he  endeavored  to  appease  and  reconcile  the  factions 
by  which  the  State  was  still  somewhat  disturbed.  He  opposed 
the  ambition  and  usurpation  of  Pisistratus  without  success, 
and  devoted  his  remaining  years  to  poetry  and  culture.  One 
of  his  verses  says,  "I  grow  in  learning  as  I  grow  in  years." 
He  began  to  compose  a  poem  on  the  fabulous  Island  of  Atlan- 
tis, but  did  not  live  to  finish  it  He  died  about  558  B.C. 

SOLON  AND  CRCESUS. 

Solon,  after  having  established  new  laws  at  Athens, 
thought  he  might  absent  himself  for  some  years  and  improve 
that  time  by  traveling.  He  went  to  Sardis,  where  he  was 
received  in  a  manner  suitable  to  the  reputation  of  so  great  a 
man.  Croesus,  the  King,  attended  with  a  numerous  court, 
appeared  in  all  his  regal  pomp  and  splendor,  dressed  in  the 
most  magnificent  apparel,  enriched  with  gold  and  glittering 
with  diamonds.  Notwithstanding  the  novelty  of  this  spec- 
tacle to  Solon,  it  did  not  appear  that  he  was  the  least  moved 
at  it,  or  that  he  uttered  a  word  which  betrayed  the  least 
surprise  or  admiration.  On  the  contrary,  people  of  sense 
might  sufficiently  discern,  from  his  behavior,  that  he  looked 
upon  all  this  outward  pomp  as  an  indication  of  a  little  mind, 
which  knows  not  in  what  true  greatness  and  dignity  consist. 
This  coldness  and  indifference  on  Solon's  first  approach  gave 
the  King  no  favorable  opinion  of  his  new  guest.  He  after- 
wards ordered  that  all  his  treasures,  his  magnificent  apart- 
ments and  costly  furniture,  should  be  exhibited  to  him  ;  as  if 
he  expected,  by  the  multitude  of  his  fine  vessels,  diamonds, 


222  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

statues  and  paintings,  to  conquer  the  philosopher's  indiffer- 
ence. But  these  things  were  not  the  King ;  and  it  was  the 
King  that  Solon  had  come  to  visit,  and  not  the  walls  or  cham- 
bers of  his  palace.  He  had  no  notion  of  making  a  judgment 
of  the  King,  or  an  estimate  of  his  worth,  by  these  outward 
appendages,  but  by  himself  and  his  own  personal  qualities. 

When  Solon  had  seen  all,  he  was  brought  back  to  the 
King.  Croesus  then  asked  him,  which  of  mankind,  in  all  his 
travels,  he  had  found  the  most  truly  happy?  "One  Tellus," 
replied  Solon,  "a  citizen  of  Athens,  a  very  honest  and  good 
man,  who  lived  all  his  days  without  indigence,  had  always  seen 
his  country  in  a  flourishing  condition,  had  children  that  were 
universally  esteemed,  with  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  those 
children's  children,  and  at  last  died  gloriously  in  fighting  for 
his  country." 

Such  an  answer  as  this,  in  which  gold  and  silver  were 
accounted  as  nothing,  seemed  to  Croesus  to  argue  a  strange 
ignorance  and  stupidity.  However,  as  he  flattered  himself  on 
being  ranked  in  the  second  degree  of  happiness,  he  asked  him, 
"who,  of  all  those  he  had  seen,  was  the  next  in  felicity  to 
Tellus?"  Solon  answered,  "Cleobis  and  Biton,  of  Argos,  two 
brothers,  who  had  left  behind  them  a  perfect  pattern  of  fra- 
ternal affection,  and  of  the  respect  due  from  children  to  their 
parents.  Upon  a  solemn  festival,  when  their  mother,  a  priest- 
ess of  Juno,  was  to  go  to  the  temple,  the  oxen  that  were  to 
draw  her  not  being  ready,  the  two  sons  put  themselves  to  the 
yoke  and  drew  their  mother's  chariot  thither,  which  was 
above  five  miles  distant.  All  the  mothers  of  the  place,  filled 
with  admiration,  congratulated  the  priestess  on  the  piety  of 
her  sons.  She,  in  the  transports  of  her  joy  and  thankful- 
ness, earnestly  entreated  the  goddess  to  reward  her  children 
with  the  best  thing  that  heaven  can  give  to  man.  Her  pray- 
ers were  heard.  When  the  sacrifice  was  over,  her  two  sons 
fell  asleep  in  the  very  temple,  and  there  died  in  a  soft  and 
peaceful  slumber.  In  honor  of  their  piety,  the  people  of 
Argos  consecrated  statues  to  them  in  the  Temple  of  Delphi." 

"What then,"  says  Croesus,  in  a  tone  that  showed  his  dis- 
content, ' '  do  you  not  reckon  me  in  the  number  of  the 
happy?"  Solon,  who  was  not  willing  either  to  flatter  or 


SOLON,   THE  ATHENIAN  LAWGIVER.  223 

exasperate  him  any  farther,  replied  calmly  :  ' '  King  of  Lydia, 
besides  many  other  advantages,  the  gods  have  given  us 
Grecians  a  spirit  of  moderation  and  reserve,  which  has  pro- 
duced among  us  a  plain,  popular  kind  of  philosophy,  accom- 
panied with  a  certain  generous  freedom,  void  of  pride  or 
ostentation,  and  therefore  not  well  suited  to  the  courts  of 
kings  ;  this  philosophy,  considering  what  an  infinite  numbei 
of  vicissitudes  and  accidents  the  life  of  man  is  liable  to,  does 
not  allow  us  either  to  glory  in  any  prosperity  we  ourselves 
enjoy,  or  to  admire  happiness  in  others,  which  perhaps  may 
prove  only  transient  or  superficial."  From  hence  he  took 
occasion  to  represent  to  him  farther,  "that  the  life  of  man 
seldom  exceeds  seventy  years,  which  make  up  in  all  six 
thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty  days,  of  which  no  two  are 
exactly  alike  ;  so  that  the  time  to  come  is  nothing  but  a 
series  of  various  accidents  which  cannot  be  foreseen.  There- 
fore, in  our  opinion, ' '  continued  he,  ' '  no  man  can  be 
esteemed  happy  but  one  whose  happiness  God  continues  to 
the  end  of  his  life  ;  as  for  others,  who  are  perpetually  exposed 
to  a  thousand  dangers,  we  account  their  happiness  as  uncer- 
tain as  the  crown  is  to  a  person  that  is  still  engaged  in  battle, 
and  has  not  yet  obtained  the  victory."  Solon  retired  when 
he  had  spoken  these  words,  which  served  only  to  mortify 
Croesus,  but  not  to  reform  him. 

In  Plutarch's  time  some  of  the  learned  were  of  opinion 
that  this  interview  between  Solon  and  Croesus  did  not  agree 
with  the  dates  of  chronology.  But  as  those  dates  are  very 
uncertain,  that  judicious  author  did  not  think  this  objection 
ought  to  prevail  against  the  authority  of  several  creditable 
writers,  by  whom  this  story  is  attested. 


When  Cyrus,  King  of  Persia,  had  captured  Sardis,  Croesus 
being  a  prisoner,  was  condemned  by  the  conqueror  to  be  burnt 
alive.  Accordingly,  the  funeral-pile  was  prepared,  and  that 
unhappy  prince  being  laid  thereon,  and  just  upon  the  point  of 
execution,  recollecting  the  conversation  he  had  formerly  had 
with  Solon,  was  wofully  convinced  of  the  truth  of  that  phil- 
osopher's admonition,  and  in  remembrance  thereof,  cried  out 


224  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

aloud  three  times,  "Solon,  Solon,  Solon!"  Cyrus,  who 
with  the  chief  officers  of  his  court,  was  present  at  this  spec- 
tacle, was  curious  to  know  why  Croesus  pronounced  that  cele- 
brated philosopher's  name  with  so  much  vehemence  in  this 
extremity.  Being  told  the  reason  and  reflecting  upon  the 
uncertain  state  of  all  sublunary  things,  he  was  touched  with 
commiseration  at  the  prince's  misfortune,  caused  him  to  be 
taken  from  the  pile,  and  treated  him  afterwards,  as  long  as  he 
lived,  with  honor  and  respect  Thus  had  Solon  the  glory, 
with  a  single  word,  to  save  the  life  of  one  king,  and  give  a 
wholesome  lesson  of  instruction  to  another. — C.  ROLUN. 

THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  ATHENS. 

(From  the  Poems  of  Solon  we  take  this  brief  statement  of  his  own  work) 

The  force  of  snow  and  furious  hail  is  sent 

From  swelling  clouds  that  load  the  firmament. 

Thence  the  loud  thunders  roar,  and  lightnings  glare 

Along  the  darkness  of  the  troubled  air. 

Unmoved  by  storms,  old  ocean  peaceful  sleeps 

Till  the  loud  tempest  swells  the  angry  deeps  ; 

And  thus  the  State,  in  fell  distraction  tossed, 

Oft  by  its  noblest  citizens  is  lost; 

And  oft  a  people,  once  secure  and  free, 

Their  own  imprudence  dooms  to  tyranny. 

My  laws  have  arm'd  the  crowd  with  useful  might, 

Have  banish' d  honors  and  unequal  right, 

Have  taught  the  proud  in  wealth,  and  high  in  place, 

To  reverence  justice,  and  abhor  disgrace  ; 

And  given  to  both  a  shield,  their  guardian  tower 

Against  ambitious  aims  and  lawless  power. 

—  Translated  by  J.  H.  MBRIVALB. 


LEONIDAS  AT  THERMOPYLAE. 


EONIDAS,  whose  name  has  been  immor-. 
talized  by  his  glorious  death  in  defence 
of  Grecian  liberty,  was  the  King  of 
Sparta,  and  ascended  the  throne  about 
488  B.C.  In  the  year  480  B.  c,  Xerxes, 
the  Persian  King,  invaded  Greece  with 
a  force  of  over  two  million  soldiers, 
exclusive  of  camp-followers.  Having 
crossed  the  Hellespont,  Xerxes  entered 

Greece  on  the  northeast,  and  traversed  Thrace  and  Thessaly 
until  he  found  his  further  march  obstructed  by  an  insur- 
mountable range  of  mountains.  The  only  crossing  was  at 
the  narrow  pass  of  Thermopylae,  a  defile  having  a  length  of 
five  miles.  Here  the  Greek  States  had  posted  an  army  for 
the  common  defence.  But  the  minor  States,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Thespiae  and  Plataea,  became  so  terrified  by  the  reports 
of  the  vastness  of  the  Persian  host,  that  they  withdrew  their 
troops.  Sparta  and  Athens  were  now  deserted  by  their  allies 
and  their  total  force  was  consequently  reduced  to  12,000  men. 
One-third  of  these  were  sent  under  Leonidas  to  the  mountain 
pass,  while  the  rest  sailed  in  a  fleet  to  the  coast  near  Thermo- 
pylae, and  the  northern  point  of  Euboea. 

Xerxes,  recognizing  the  difficulty  of  conducting  his  im- 
mense army  through  the  narrow  pass,  employed  every  means 
to  shake  the  purpose  of  Leonidas  to  hold  it.  He  offered  him 
the  sovereignty  of  all  Greece,  if  he  would  forego  the  defense 
of  the  defile  ;  but  Leonidas  was  immovable.  Xerxes  then 
wrote  to  him  commanding  him  to  deliver  up  his  arms,  and 
received  the  laconic  reply,  "  Come  and  take  them." 

15  225 


226  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

After  a  delay  of  twenty  days  the  Persian  advanced  to  the 
attack.  He  sent  his  Median  forces  first,  with  orders  to  take 
their  antagonists  alive  and  bring  them  to  him.  But  the 
Medes  were  not  able  to  stand  the  charge  of  the  Grecians,  and 
were  soon  compelled  to  fly.  Next  Xerxes  sent  his  band  of 
"Immortals,"  consisting  of  10,000  Persians  ;  but  they  were 
likewise  repulsed.  Two  days  had  thus  elapsed  without  any 
perceptible  weakening  of  the  Greeks,  while  20,000  of  his 
bravest  troops  had  been  slain.  The  great  King  was  per- 
plexed ;  he  began  to  despair  of  forcing  the  defile.  At  this 
crisis  a  traitorous  native  informed  the  King  of  a  secret  path 
which  led  to  an  eminence  that  overlooked  and  commanded 
the  Spartan  army.  Thither  Xerxes  promptly  sent  troops  in 
the  night-time.  The  next  morning  the  Greeks  were  soon 
aware  of  their  proximity,  and  Leonidas  seeing  that  it  was  now 
impossible  to  withstand  the  Persians,  obliged  the  allies  to 
retire,  while  he  himself  remained  with  his  three  hundred 
Spartans,  who  were  forbidden  by  their  country's  laws  ever  to 
flee  from  an  enemy.  They  had  no  hopes  either  to  escape  or 
conquer,  but,  loyal  to  their  Spartan  training,  accepted  Ther- 
mopylae, the  gate  of  Greece,  as  their  burial  place.  They 
arrayed  themselves  as  if  for  a  feast,  and  while  they  were 
eating  their  last  meal,  Leonidas  announced  that  they  would 
all  sup  with  Pluto.  The  devoted  band  set  up  a  shout  of  joy, 
and  in  the  darkness  of  the  night  assaulted  the  Persian  out- 
posts and  for  a  while  slew  many  enemies.  With  the  daylight 
they  were  overcome  by  ever-increasing  numbers,  but  not 
until  they  had  performed  prodigies  of  valor.  Leonidas  was 
struck  down  under  the  cloud  of  arrows  which  harassed  his 
men,  who  still  endeavored  to  defend  his  body.  At  length, 
completely  exhausted  and  overwhelmed,  all  fell  but  one  man, 
who  escaped  to  Sparta. 

To  his  eternal  disgrace  the  exasperated  victor  caused  the 
body  of  Leonidas  to  be  hanged  upon  a  cross.  King  Pau- 
sanias,  after  the  Persians  had  been  driven  from  Greece,  took 
his  remains  to  Sparta,  where  his  grateful  people,  though  they 
refused  to  mourn,  erected  for  Leonidas  a  magnificent  tomb,  and 
for  the  Three  Hundred  a  grand  temple.  The  government 
also  instituted  an  annual  festival  entitled  Leonidas,  in  which 


LEONIDAS  AT  THERMOPYI^.  227 

only  Spartans  had  the  right  to  participate.  The  Council  of 
the  Amphictyons,  the  representative  body  of  all  Greece, 
erected  a  noble  monument  at  Thermopylae  with  two  inscrip- 
tions in  honor  of  their  glorious  defence  of  their  country.  One 
of  these  was  ' '  Go,  traveler,  tell  at  Sparta  that  we  died  here  in 
obedience  to  her  sacred  laws." 

THE  SPARTANS'   OATH. 

'Twas  an  hour  of  fearful  issues, 

When  the  bold  Three  Hundred  stood, 
For  their  love  of  holy  freedom, 

By  that  old  Thessalian  flood- 
When,  lifting  high  each  sword  of  flame, 
They  called  on  every  sacred  name, 
And  swore,  beside  those  dashing  waves, 
They  never,  never  would  be  slaves ! 

And  oh !  that  oath  was  nobly  kept. 

From  morn  to  setting  sun 
Did  desperation  urge  the  fight 

Which  valor  had  begun ; 
Till,  torrent-like,  the  stream  of  blood 
Ran  down  and  mingled  with  the  flood, 
And  all,  from  mountain  cliff  to  wave, 
Was  Freedom's,  Valor's,  Glory's — grave. 

Oh  yes  !  that  oath  was  nobly  kept, 

Which  nobly  had  been  sworn, 
And  proudly  did  each  gallant  heart 

The  foeman's  fetters  spurn ; 
And  firmly  was  the  fight  maintained, 
And  amply  was  the  triumph  gained  ; 
They  fought,  fair  liberty,  for  thee ; 
They  fell — TO  DIE  is  To  BE  FREE  ! 

— GEO.  W.  DOANE. 


ERXES,  the  originator  and  leader  of 
what  might  be  properly  called  the 
u  Persian  Armada,"  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  his  father,  Darius,  in  the 
year  485  B.C.  The  great  event  of  his 
reign  was  the  invasion  of  Greece,  with 
an  immense  armament  of  ships  and 
the  largest  army  that  probably  the 
world  has  ever  seen.  His  inglorious 

defeat  by  the  Grecian  States  is  his  only  and  invidious  title  to 
be  enrolled  in  the  annals  of  fame.  For  four  full  years  he 
was  making  preparations  for  this  expedition.  The  fleet,  and 
the  vast  army  of  men,  were  collected  from  every  province 
under  the  government  of  Persia. 

In  the  autumn  of  481  B.C.  his  forces  wintered  at  Sardis,  in 
Asia  Minor.  In  the  spring  of  480  they  advanced  to  the 
Hellespont,  and  crossed  at  Abydos  by  a  bridge  of  boats.  The 
first  bridge  constructed  was  destroyed  by  a  storm,  on  which 
the  king  ordered  the  rebellious  Hellespont  to  be  whipped, 
which  was  done  with  three  hundred  lashes.  His  barbaric 
cruelty  was  further  seen  in  his  ordering  the  engineers  to  be 
beheaded.  The  army  was  seven  days  and  nights  in  crossing, 
on  the  new  bridge  of  boats,  from  Asia  to  Europe.  While  the 
land  forces  marched  through  Thrace,  Xerxes  had  numbered 
his  forces  at  a  station  near  the  river  Hebrus,  the  ships  taking 
position  close  by.  The  various  classical  authorities  differ  in 
their  statements  ;  but  it  is  generally  accepted  that  his  land  and 
sea  forces  amounted  to  two  millions,  exclusive  of  a  still 
228 


XERXES.  229 

greater  number  of  the  usual  attendants,  sutlers,  women,  slaves 
and  camp-followers. 

The  statement  that  he  caused  a  canal  to  be  cut  across  the 
neck  of  the  peninsula  at  Mount  Athos  is  asserted  by  the 
Roman  satirist,  Juvenal,  to  be  a  Grecian  fiction,  yet  it  is  not 
improbable.  It  is  said  that  his  ships  sailed  two  abreast 
through  it,  and  thereby  avoided  the  dangerous  coasting 
around  the  promontory. 

Xerxes  met  no  obstruction  in  his  march  through  Mace- 
donia and  Thessaly  ;  but  at  Thermopylae,  the  noted  pass,  a 
chosen  band  of  Greeks  kept  guard,  A  traitor  revealed  a  side- 
path,  which  enabled  the  Persians  to  destroy  Leonidas  and  his 
devoted  three  hundred  Spartans.  Xerxes  thus  gained  an  en- 
trance into  Greece  proper  ;  but  he  had  not  yet  subdued  its  pa- 
triotic people.  Eagerly  pressing  forward,  he  destroyed  the 
hated  city  of  Athens,  which  its  inhabitants  had  wisely  deserted, 
taking  refuge  in  their  ' '  wooden  walls. ' ' 

In  the  three  days'  sea-fight  at  Artemisium,  off  the  northern 
promontory  of  the  Island  of  Eubcea  and  opposite  to  the  moun- 
tain pass  of  Thermopylae,  the  Persian  fleet  suffered  severely, 
as  the  narrowness  of  the  strait  prevented  the  action  of  the 
whole  armament  at  once.  Two  hundred  galleys  were  lost  in 
a  storm  off  the  coast  of  Euboea.  But  in  spite  of  these  disas- 
ters, when  his  fleet  arrived  in  the  Bay  of  Salamis,  whither  it 
had  promptly  followed  the  retreat  of  the  Grecian  ships,  the 
Persian  armada  had  regained  its  full  number  of  vessels.  The 
new  recruitment  of  ships  was  made  by  Thracian  and  Tries- 
salian  contingents. 

In  the  great  naval  engagement  at  Salamis,  this  fleet,  num- 
bering over  one  thousand  ships,  was  defeated  with  a  loss  of 
two  hundred  vessels.  The  Grecian  ships  amounted  to  nearly 
three  hundred,  of  which  the  number  lost  was  about  forty. 
Xerxes,  who  had  witnessed  the  combat  safely  from  a  promon- 
tory, relinquished  the  desperate  task  of  subduing  the  stubborn 
Greeks,  and  hastened  back  to  the  Hellespont  with  part  of  his 
land  forces.  His  flatterers  easily  persuaded  him  that  he  had 
accomplished  the  main  object  of  his  expedition  by  the  destruc- 
tion of  Athens.  But  three  hundred  thousand  of  his  choicest 
troops  remained  with  his  general,  Mardouius,  to  effect  the 


230  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

conquest  of  Greece  if  possible.  After  a  weary  retreat  of  forty- 
five  days  Xerxes  reached  the  Hellespont  with  a  comparatively 
small  army,  reduced  as  it  had  been,  on  the  way,  by  drought 
and  lack  of  provisions.  The  Persian  fleet  with  its  auxiliaries, 
the  next  morning  after  the  battle  of  Salamis,  had  completely 
disappeared  when  the  Greeks  hurried  out  to  chase  them. 

In  the  next  year  Mardonius,  who  had  been  one  of  the  chief 
advisers  and  promoters  of  the  great  expedition,  was  defeated 
and  slain  in  the  battle  of  Plataea,  which  forever  established 
the  military  superiority  of  the  Greeks  to  the  Persians.  The 
Greek  fleet  also  sailed  across  the  ^gsean  Sea,  redeemed  the 
islands  which  had  been  brought  under  the  Persian  yoke,  and 
in  a  double  fight  at  Mount  Mycale,  in  Asia  Minor,  defeated  a 
Persian  army  of  60,000  men,  and  destroyed  the  remnant  of 
the  ships  that  had  escaped  from  Salamis.  With  these  great 
successes  the  Greeks  remained  content  for  twelve  years.  Then 
the  Athenians  again  sent  forth  a  fleet  under  Cimon,  which 
swept  the  Phoenician  and  Persian  vessels  from  the  eastern 
Mediterranean,  and  returned  loaded  with  spoils  and  captives. 

After  reaching  his  capital  Xerxes  abandoned  himself  to 
a  life  of  debauchery,  and  became  the  object  of  general  odium 
and  contempt  He  was  assassinated  in  his  sleep,  in  the 
twenty-first  year  of  his  reign,  465  B.C. 

THE  FUGHT  OF  XERXES. 

I  saw  him  on  the  battle-eve, 

When,  like  a  king,  he  bore  him — 
Proud  hosts  in  glittering  helm  and  greave, 

And  prouder  chiefs  before  him : 
The  warrior,  and  the  warrior's  deeds — 
The  morrow,  and  the  morrow's  meeds  — 

No  daunting  thoughts  come  o'er  him  ; 
He  looked  around  him,  and  his  eye 
Defiance  flashed  to  earth  and  sky. 

He  looked  on  ocean — its  broad  breast 

Was  covered  with  his  fleet ; 
On  earth — and  saw  from  east  to  west, 

His  bannered  millions  meet ; 


XERXES.  231 

While  rock,  and  glen,  and  cave,  and  coast. 
Shook  with  the  war-cry  of  that  host, 

The  thunder  of  their  feet ! 
He  heard  the  imperial  echoes  ring — 
He  heard,  and  felt  himself  a  king. 

I  saw  him  next  alone :  nor  camp 

Nor  chief  his  steps  attended  ; 
Nor  banner  blazed,  nor  courser's  tramp 

With  war-cries  proudly  blended. 
He  stood  alone,  whom  fortune  high 
So  lately  seemed  to  deify ; 

He,  who  with  heaven  contended, 
Fled  like  a  fugitive  and  slave ! 
Behind — the  foe  ;  before— the  wave. 

He  stood — fleet,  army,  treasure,  gone — 

Alone,  and  in  despair  ! 
But  wave  and  wind  swept  ruthless  on, 

For  they  were  monarchs  there ; 
And  Xerxes,  in  a  single  bark, 
Where  late  his  thousand  ships  were  dark, 

Must  all  their  fury  dare. 
What  a  revenge — a  trophy,  this — 
For  thee,  immortal  Salamis  ! 

— M.  J.  FLETCHER. 


THEMISTOCLES. 


THE  determined  effort  of  the  Persian 
Empire  to  crush  the  rising  power  of 
Greece  was  the  means  of  calling  forth 
men  of  heroic  character,  whose  exertions 
gave  to  their  country  a  foremost  position 
in  the  history  of  civilization.  At  the 
most  critical  moment,  when  Greece  was 
invaded  by  the  vast  army  of  Xerxes, 
who  came  to  avenge  the  dishonor  done 
at  Marathon  to  the  Persian  name,  there  arose  in  Athens  the 
most  inspiring  leader  of  the  great  struggle. 

Themistocles  was  born  at  Athens  in  the  year  514  B.C. 
His  father  was  Neocles,  a  man  of  middle  class  and  of  mode- 
rate means.  As  his  mother  was  a  foreign  woman  of  Thrace, 
the  law  of  Athens  pronounced  Themistocles  illegitimate. 
In  his  boyhood  he  exhibited  a  wayward  and  wilful  dispo- 
sition, yet  he  spent  his  time,  as  Plutarch  writes,  in  inventing 
and  composing  declamations  for  either  the  impeachment  or 
defence  of  some  of  his  youthful  companions.  His  master 
would  often  say,  "Boy,  you  will  be  nothing  common  or 
indifferent;  you  will  either  be  a  blessing  or  a  curse  to  the 
community." 

Athens  had  become  the  scene  of  a  fierce  political  rivalry, 
and  Themistocles,  as  the  leader  of  the  popular  party,  was 
using  all  the  arts  and  tricks  of  the  demagogue.  His  rival, 
Aristides,  had  all  the  virtues  which  belonged  to  his  position 
as  leader  of  the  aristocratic  party.  He  was  especially  noted 
for  his  strict  justice,  and  refused  to  favor  his  partisans  at  its 
expense.  Themistocles  was  able,  therefore,  to  put  in  exercise 
against  him  that  remarkable  provision  of  Athenian  law  by 
232 


THEMISTOCLES.  233 

which  a  leader  who  should  be  voted  by  his  fellow-citizens  to 
be  dangerous  could  be  banished  for  ten  years. 

The  battle  of  Marathon,  490  B.C.,  in  which  Miltiades, 
the  Grecian  leader,  humbled  the  Persian  army  of  ten  times 
his  own  numbers,  stirred  the  soul  of  this  young  man. 
Themistocles  took  part  in  the  action,  and  with  his  famous 
rival  held  a  post  of  great  danger.  Some  time  after  the  battle 
of  Marathon,  Themistocles  became  depressed  and  denied 
himself  all  enjoyment.  When  asked  the  reason  of  his  con- 
duct by  his  friends,  he  replied,  "The  trophies  of  Miltiades 
will  not  suffer  me  to  sleep." 

Whilst  the  Athenian  people  fondly  imagined  that  Mara- 
thon had  put  an  end  to  danger  from  the  Persians,  Themis- 
tocles thought  otherwise,  and  sought  to  strengthen  the  city's 
naval  power  as  its  proper  defence.  He  prevailed  on  the 
assembly  to  reject  a  proposition  that  to  every  citizen  of 
Athens  should  be  distributed  ten  drachmae  (about  $2),  from 
the  product  of  the  silver  mines  at  Laurium,  and  to  appro- 
priate the  gross  amount  to  building  ships  for  the  war  with 
^gina,  a  neighboring  island. 

Before  this  war  was  ended,  accounts  were  brought  to 
Athens  of  the  formidable  preparations  of  Xerxes,  who  ap- 
peared to  inherit  all  his  father's  rancor  against  the  Greeks. 
What  Themistocles  had  foreseen  now  took  place.  In  480 
B.C.  Xerxes  moved  his  forces  on  land  and  sea  to  the  attack. 
Themistocles  now  urged  his  countrymen  to  build  more  ships, 
and  to  rely  for  safety  on  their  naval  power.  The  adoption  of 
this  counsel  saved  Greece,  for  subsequently  Xerxes,  when  de- 
feated at  sea,  could  make  no  headway  against  the  Athenians, 
though  his  land  forces  remained  entire.  When  Xerxes  was 
approaching  through  Northern  Greece,  burning  and  destroy- 
ing the  Phocian  cities,  the  Greeks  sent  no  succor  to  Athens. 
Its  brave  inhabitants  could  not  think  of  giving  battle  alone 
to  such  a  vast  army  ;  yet  they  were  unwilling  to  leave  Athens 
and  trust  themselves  to  their  ships.  Themistocles,  after 
using  all  his  eloquence  and  address  to  work  upon  their 
passions,  had  recourse  to  the  oracle.  From  Delphi  came  the 
words,  "  The  wooden  wall  shall  alone  remain  unconquered  to 
defend  you  and  your  children."  Themistocles  explained 


234  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

that  by  ' '  wooden  walls ' '  ships  were  meant  At  last  his  argu- 
ments prevailed,  and  the  young  and  adventurous  embarked 
for  Salainis ;  the  old,  the  women  and  children  took  shelter  in 
the  city  of  Trcezene.  Themistocles,  acknowledging  the 
patriotism  of  his  rival  Aristides,  caused  a  decree  to  be  made 
that  all  who  had  been  banished  only  for  a  time,  should  have 
leave  to  return. 

After  suffering  loss  in  the  naval  engagements  off  Eubcea, 
it  was  learned  that  the  large  Persian  fleet  was  approaching 
the  doomed  city.  Eurybiades,  the  Spartan,  who  had  been 
given  the  command  of  the  allied  fleet,  was  for  sailing  to  the 
Gulf  of  Corinth,  that  he  might  be  near  the  land  army.  But 
Themistocles  clearly  saw  that  in  the  Straits  of  Salamis  they 
could  fight  the  Persian  fleet  with  much  greater  advantage 
than  in  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  where  there  was  an  open  sea. 
Eurybiades  lost  his  temper  during  the  dispute,  and  was  about 
to  strike  Themistocles.  "  Strike  if  you  will,  but  hear  me," 
exclaimed  the  great  Athenian.  The  reason  and  moderation 
of  Themistocles  prevailed,  and  the  generals  decided  to  receive 
the  Persians  at  Salamis.  Xerxes  gave  command  to  his  fleet 
to  surround  the  straits  by  night  in  order  to  prevent  the  escape 
of  the  enemy.  Aristides,  who  was  then  at  ^Egina,  ventured  in 
a  small  boat  through  the  Persian  fleet.  Upon  landing  he 
went  to  the  tent  of  Themistocles,  and  thus  addressed  him, 
u  Let  us  still  be  rivals  ;  but  let  our  strife  be  which  can  best 
save  our  country."  Themistocles  replied,  UI  could  have 
wished,  Aristides,  that  you  had  not  been  beforehand  with  me 
in  this  noble  emulation ;  but  I  will  endeavor  to  outdo  this 
happy  beginning  of  yours  by  my  future  actions. ' ' 

Aristides,  informing  Themistocles  of  the  Persian  fleet's 
real  situation,  exhorted  him  to  give  battle  without  delay. 
Themistocles  had  introduced  into  his  fleet  a  new  and  improved 
system  of  attack,  which  proved  highly  effective.  Every 
trireme  was  armed  with  a  strong  iron  beak,  and  with  this 
they  would  bear  down  on  the  vessels  of  the  enemy,  striking 
them  broadside;  the  next  tactic  was  to  render  the  hostile 
ships  unmanageable  by  dashing  among  the  oars  and  breaking 
them.  The  most  glorious  event  of  the  life  of  Themistocles 
was  undoubtedly  this  great  victory  of  Salamis.  The  fleet  of 


THEMISTOCLES.  235 

Xerxes  comprised  more  than  a  thousand  triremes,  and  al- 
though Themistocles  had  but  378  vessels,  he  utterly  routed 
the  Persian  fleet  The  joy  of  the  Greeks  upon  this  victory 
was  enthusiastic :  every  commander  had  his  share  of  honor ; 
but  the  glory  of  Themistocles  eclipsed  that  of  all  the  rest. 
The  Lacedaemonians  carried  him  in  triumph  to  Sparta. 
They  adjudged  the  reward  of  valor  to  their  own  countryman 
Eurybiades,  but  that  of  wisdom  to  Themistocles.  They 
crowned  him  with  olive,  presented  him  with  a  rich  chariot, 
and  conducted  him  with  three  hundred  horse  to  the  confines 
of  their  State.  At  the  Olympic  games  the  spectators  received 
him  with  uncommon  acclamations,  the  whole  assembly  rising 
to  do  him  honor. 

Themistocles  now  induced  the  Athenians,  as  the  guardians 
of  Grecian  liberty,  to  levy  contributions  from  all  the  islands 
that  had  espoused  the  Persian  cause.  These  contributions  he 
was  charged  with  converting  to  his  private  advantage;  but 
they  were  chiefly  used  for  the  maintenance  and  increase  of 
the  Athenian  fleet.  Themistocles,  in  thus  reaching  after 
imperial  power,  lost  his  influence  at  home,  and  was  finally 
accused  of  treason  in  conjunction  with  Pausanias,  King  of 
Sparta.  To  him  in  turn  came  the  dreaded  ostracism.  Ban- 
ished from  his  native  land,  he  threw  himself  on  the  mercy  of 
Artaxerxes,  a  son  of  the  man  whose  fleet  he  had  destroyed  at 
Salamis.  In  return  for  protection,  Themistocles  even  promised 
to  unfold  a  plan  whereby  that  monarch  might  crush  the 
power  of  Athens,  but  desired  that  one  year  should  be  given 
him  to  think  over  and  mature  this  scheme.  Artaxerxes  made 
him  ruler  over  four  cities,  from  which  he  received  all  taxes. 
Plutarch  relates  that  Themistocles,  amid  the  splendor  of  his 
luxurious  table,  one  day  exclaimed,  ' '  How  much  we  should 
have  lost,  my  children,  if  we  had  not  been  ruined!"  He  died 
at  the  age  of  sixty-five,  about  the  year  449  B.C.  Thucydides 
says  that  the  bones  of  Themistocles,  by  his  own  command, 
were  privately  carried  back  into  Attica  and  buried  there. 

Themistocles  left  a  reputation  for  decision,  promptness  of 
action  and  rectitude  of  judgment,  fertility  of  resource  and 
acuteness  in  conjecture,  for  foresight  of  the  good  and  evil 
results  of  every  measure,  and  for  eloquence  in  enforcing  his 


236  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

conclusions.  Nor  was  lie  less  distinguished  for  daring  in 
action.  He,  however,  was  fond  of  show  and  power,  and  of 
associating  with  men  of  wealth,  and  did  not  hesitate  to  use 
corrupt  means  for  accomplishing  his  object,  whether  for  the 
public  weal  or  for  self-enrichment.  Themistocles  was  always 
chosen  as  leader  in  an  emergency.  He  combined  the  arts 
of  the  successful  politician  of  a  democracy  with  the  foresight 
and  sagacity  of  an  imperial  statesman. 

THE  SEA-FIGHT  OF  SALAMIS. 

All  the  Athenians  capable  of  bearing  arms  or  of  handling 
an  oar,  embarked  on  board  the  fleet  stationed  at  Salamis. 
The  ships  equipped  and  manned  by  them  alone  exceeded  in 
number  those  of  all  their  allies  together,  although  the  com- 
bined force  was  considerably  augmented  by  the  naval  strength 
of  Epirus  and  Acarnania.  The  whole  Grecian  armament, 
thus  increased,  amounted  to  three  hundred  and  eighty  vessels. 
That  of  the  Persians,  which  now  took  possession  of  the 
Athenian  harbors,  lying  to  the  south  of  the  strait  occupied  by 
the  Greeks,  had  also  received  a  powerful  reinforcement.  The 
Locrians,  Boeotians,  and  in  general  every  people  who  had  sub- 
mitted to  their  arms,  readily  supplied  them  with  ships ;  and 
several  of  the  ^Sgaean  Islands  having  at  length  prepared  the 
quota  which  they  had  formerly  been  commanded  to  furnish, 
the  Persian  fleet  was  thus  restored  to  its  original  complement 
of  twelve  hundred  sail. 

Trusting  to  the  immense  superiority  of  his  armament, 
Xerxes  was  still  desirous  to  make  trial  of  his  fortune  at  sea, 
notwithstanding  his  former  disasters  on  that  element.  But 
before  he  came  to  a  final  resolution  he  summoned  a  council 
of  war,  in  order  to  hear  the  opinion  of  his  maritime  subjects 
or  allies.  The  tributary  Kings  of  Tyre  and  Sidou,  the  leaders 
of  the  Egyptians,  Cyprians  and  Cilicians,  ever  ready  to  flatter 
the  passions  of  their  sovereign,  offered  many  frivolous  reasons 
in  favor  of  the  alternative  to  which  they  perceived  him 
inclined.  But  in  the  fleet  of  Xerxes  there  was  a  Grecian  queen 
named  Artemisia,  widow  of  the  Prince  of  Halicarnassus,  and 
who  had  assumed  the  government  of  that  city  and  territory 
for  the  benefit  of  her  infant  son.  She  not  only  fitted  out  five 


THBMISTOCLES.  237 

ships  to  attend  the  Persian  expedition,  but  took  upon  herself 
the  command  of  her  little  squadron,  and  on  every  occasion 
conducted  it  with  equal  skill  and  bravery.  Such  vigor  of 
mind,  united  with  so  delicate  a  form,  deserved  to  excite 
admiration  in  every  part  of  the  world  ;  but  the  manly  spirit  of 
Artemisia  becomes  still  more  admirable,  when  we  consider 
the  severe  restraints  which  have  been  in  all  ages  imposed  on 
the  female  sex,  by  the  manners  and  climate  of  Asia.  Her 
superior  genius  recommended  her  to  the  peculiar  favor  of 
Xerxes,  who  was  obliged  to  esteem  in  a  woman  the  virtues 
which  he  himself  wanted  spirit  to  practice.  Artemisia  dis- 
sented from  the  general  voice  of  the  allies,  and  even  opposed 
the  inclination  of  the  prince.  But  her  judicious  observations 
were  heard  without  approbation  ;  the  worst  opinion  prevailed, 
being  the  best  adapted  to  flatter  the  vanity  of  Xerxes. 

When  the  Grecian  commanders  observed  that  the  enemy 
prepared  to  venture  another  engagement  at  sea,  they  likewise 
assembled  to  deliberate  whether  they  should  continue  in  the 
strait  between  Salamis  and  Attica,  or  proceed  further  up  the 
.gulf,  towards  the  Corinthian  Isthmus.  The  latter  proposal 
was  generally  approved  by  the  confederates  of  Peloponnesus, 
who  anxiously  desired,  in  the  present  emergency,  to  approach 
as  near  as  possible  to  their  respective  cities.  Some  hastened  to 
their  ships  and  hoisted  sail,  in  order  to  depart ;  and  it  seemed 
likely  that  their  example  would  be  soon  followed  by  the 
whole  fleet.  On  board  the  ship  of  Themistocles  was  Mnesi- 
philus,  formerly  the  instructor  of  his  youth,  and  who  now 
accompanied  him  as  his  counselor  and  friend.  Mnesiphilus 
readily  discerned  that  should  the  Greeks  sail  from  Salamis, 
it  would  be  impossible  to  prevent  the  general  dispersion  of 
their  armament.  He  therefore  exhorted  Themistocles  to 
endeavor,  by  all  means  possible,  to  prevent  this  fatal  measure, 
and  particularly  to  persuade  the  Spartan  admiral,  Eurybiades, 
to  alter  his  present  intention. 

Themistocles  readily  embraced  the  opinion  of  his  friend. 
Having  waited  on  Eurybiades,  he  obtained  his  consent  to 
summon  a  second  assembly  of  the  confederates.  After  they 
were  fully  convened,  the  Athenian  began  to  call  their  atten- 
tion to  the  state  of  their  affairs;  but  his  discourse  was 


238  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

insolently  interrupted  by  Adimantus,  the  commander  of  the 
Corinthians,  who  had  constantly  discovered  a  particular  solici- 
tude for  returning  to  the  isthmus.  Themistocles,  no  less 
prudent  than  brave,  answered  his  reproaches  with  calmness, 
and  then  addressing  himself  to  Eurybiades,  "  The  fate  of 
Greece,"  said  he,  "depends  on  the  decision  of  the  present 
moment,  and  that  decision  on  you ;  if  you  resolve  to  sail  to 
the  isthmus,  we  must  abandon  Salamis,  Megara  and  ^gina ; 
we  shall  be  compelled  to  fight  in  an  open  sea,  where  the 
enemy  may  fully  avail  themselves  of  their  superior  numbers  ; 
and  as  the  Persian  army  will  certainly  attend  the  movements  of 
their  fleet,  we  shall  draw  their  combined  strength  towards  the 
Grecian  Peninsula,  our  last  and  only  retreat.  But  if  you 
determine  to  retain  the  ships  in  their  present  station,  the 
Persians  will  find  it  impossible,  in  a  narrow  channel,  to  attack 
us  at  once  with  their  whole  force :  we  shall  preserve  Megara 
and  Salamis,  and  we  shall  effectually  defend  Peloponnesus ; 
for  the  Barbarians  being,  as  I  firmly  trust,  defeated  in  a  naval 
engagement,  will  not  penetrate  further  than  Attica,  but 
return  home  with  disgrace." 

The  firmness  of  this  discourse  shook  the  resolution  of 
the  confederates ;  and  it  was  determined  by  the  majority  to 
continue  at  Salamis.  Notwithstanding  the  wisdom  and 
eloquence  of  Themistocles,  the  Peloponnesians  were  ready  to 
return  to  their  first  determination.  A  vessel  arriving  from 
the  isthmus,  brought  advice  that  the  fortifications  there  were 
almost  completed  ;  if  the  fleet  retired  to  the  neighboring 
shore,  the  sailors  might,  even  after  a  defeat  at  sea,  take  refuge 
behind  their  walls;  but  if  conquered  near  the  coast  of 
Salamis,  they  would  be  forever  separated  from  their  families 
and  friends  and  confined,  without  hope  or  resource,  within 
the  narrow  limits  of  a  barren  island.  Themistocles  deter- 
mined to  prevent  the  Greeks  from  the  possibility  of  leaving 
by  employing  stratagem,  and  sent  a  freedman,  named  Sicinus, 
to  inform  Xerxes  that  the  Greeks  had  determined  to  make 
their  escape  under  cover  of  the  night.  The  deceit  was 
believed  ;  the  whole  day  and  the  greater  part  of  the  succeed- 
ing night,  the  Persians  employed  in  securing  the  several 
passages  between  the  islands  and  the  adjacent  coast.  They 


THEMISTOCLES.  239 

also  filled  the  little  isle,  or  rather  rock,  of  Psyttalea  with  the 
flower  of  the  Persian  infantry,  in  order  to  intercept  the 
miserable  remnant  of  the  Greeks,  who,  after  the  expected 
defeat,  would  fly  thither  for  refuge. 

The  first  intelligence  of  these  operations  was  brought  to 
the  Grecian  fleet  by  Aristides,  the  Athenian,  who  readily 
embraced  every  opportunity  to  serve  his  country.  Having 
with  difficulty  escaped  in  a  small  vessel  from  the  Isle  of 
^gina,  the  generous  patriot  immediately  communicated  an 
account  of  what  he  had  seen  there  to  his  rival,  Themistocles, 
who,  meeting  his  generosity  with  equal  frankness,  made  him 
the  confidant  of  his  secret.  Their  interview  was  as  memorable 
as  the  occasion ;  and,  after  a  continued  life  of  opposition  and 
"hatred,  they  now  first  agreed  to  suspend  their  private  animos- 
ities in  order  to  promote  the  common  interest  of  their  country. 
As  the  Peloponnesian  commanders  were  either  wavering  and 
irresolute,  or  had  determined  to  set  sail,  Aristides  was  desired 
to  inform  them  of  the  arrangement  which  he  had  seen.  The 
arrival  of  a  vessel  belonging  to  the  Isle  of  Tenos  confirmed 
the  veracity  of  his  report,  and  the  Peloponnesians  resolved 
to  fight,  because  it  was  impossible  to  fly. 

Before  the  dawn  of  the  day  the  Grecian  ships  were  drawn 
up  in  order  of  battle ;  and  the  Persians,  who  had  been  sur- 
prised at  not  finding  them  attempt  to  escape  during  the  night, 
were  still  more  surprised  when  morning  discovered  their  close 
and  regular  arrangement.  The  Greeks  began  with  the  light 
their  sacred  hymns  and  paeans,  which  preceded  their  trium- 
phant songs  of  war,  accompanied  by  the  animating  sound  of 
the  trumpet.  The  shores  6f  Attica  re-echoed  to  the  rocks  of 
Salamis  and  Psyttalea.  The  Grecian  acclamations  filled  the 
sky.  Neither  their  appearance  nor  their  words  betokened 
flight  or  fear,  but  rather  determined  intrepidity  and  invincible 
courage.  Yet  was  their  valor  tempered  with  wisdom.  The- 
mistocles delayed  the  attack  until  the  ordinary  breeze  should 
spring  up,  which  was  no  less  favorable  to  the  experience  of 
the  Grecian  mariners,  than  dangerous  to  the  lofty  unwieldi- 
ness  of  the  Persian  ships.  The  signal  was  then  given  for  the 
Athenian  line  to  bear  down  against  that  of  the  Phoenicians, 
which  rode  on  the  west,  off  the  coast  of  Eleusis ;  while  the 


240  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

Peloponnesians  advanced  against  the  enemy's  left  wing, 
stationed  on  the  east,  near  the  harbor  of  the  Piraeus.  The 
Persians,  confiding  in  their  number,  and  secure  of  victory,  did 
not  decline  the  fight.  A  Phoenician  galley,  of  uncommon 
size  and  strength,  was  distinguished  in  the  front  of  their  line 
by  every  circumstance  of  naval  pomp.  In  the  eagerness  to 
engage,  she  far  outstripped  her  companions ;  but  her  career 
was  checked  midway  between  the  two  fleets  by  an  Athenian 
galley  which  had  sailed  forth  to  meet  her.  The  first  shock 
shattered  her  sculptured  prow;  the  second  buried  her  in  the 
waves.  The  Athenians,  encouraged  by  this  auspicious  pre- 
lude, proceeded  with  their  whole  force,  animating  each  other 
to  the  combat  by  a  martial  song:  "Advance,  ye  sons  of 
Athens,  save  your  country,  defend  your  wives  and  children, 
deliver  the  temples  of  your  gods,  regain  the  sacred  tombs  of 
your  renowned  forefathers ;  this  day,  the  common  cause  of 
Greece  demands  your  valor." 

The  battle  was  bloody  and  destructive,  and  disputed  on 
the  side  of  the  Persians  with  more  obstinate  resistance  than 
on  any  former  occasion ;  for,  from  the  Attic  coast,  seated  on 
a  lofty  throne,  on  the  top  of  Mount  ^galios,  Xerxes  observed 
the  scene  of  action,  and  attentively  remarked,  with  a  view  to 
reward  and  punish,  the  various  behavior  of  his  subjects.  The 
presence  of  their  prince  operated  on  their  hopes,  and  still 
more  powerfully  on  their  fears.  But  neither  the  hope  of 
acquiring  the  favor,  nor  the  fear  of  incurring  the  displeasure 
of  a  despot,  could  furnish  principles  of  action  worthy  of 
being  compared  with  the  patriotism  and  love  of  liberty  which 
actuated  the  Greeks.  To  the  dignity  of  their  motives,  as 
much  as  to  the  superiority  of  their  skill,  the  latter  owed  their 
unexampled  success  in  this  memorable  engagement.  The  fore- 
most ships  of  the  Phoenicians  were  dispersed  or  sunk.  Amidst 
the  terror  and  confusion  occasioned  by  their  repulse,  they  ran 
foul  of  those  which  had  been  drawn  up  in  two  lines  behind 
them.  The  Athenians  skillfully  encircled  them  around, 
compressed  them  into  a  narrow  space,  and  increased  their 
disorder ;  they  were  at  length  entangled  in  each  other,  deprived 
of  all  power  of  action,  and,  to  use  the  expressive  figure  of 
an  eye-witness,  "caught  and  destroyed  like  fish  in  a  net." 


THEMISTOCLES.  241 

Such  was  the  fate  of  the  right  wing ;  while  the  lonians, 
who,  on  the  left,  opposed  the  fleets  of  Peloponnesus  and 
^Dgina,  furnished  them  with  an  opportunity  to  complete  the 
victory.  Many  of  the  Asiatic  Greeks,  mindful  of  the  advice 
given  by  Themistocles,  abandoned  the  interest  of  the  great 
king,  and  openly  declared  for  their  countrymen  ;  others  de- 
clined the  engagement ;  the  remainder  were  sunk  and  put  to 
flight.  Among  those  which  escaped  was  the  ship  of  Queen 
Artemisia,  who  in  the  battle  of  Salamis  displayed  superior 
courage  and  conduct ;  she  was  closely  pursued  by  an  Athenian 
galley,  commanded  by  Amenias,  brother  of  the  poet  ^Sschy- 
lus.  In  this  extremity  she  employed  a  successful,  but  very 
unwarrantable  stratagem.  The  nearest  Persian  vessel  was 
commanded  by  Damasithymus,  a  tributary  prince  of  Calynda 
in  Lycia,  a  man  with  whom  Artemisia  was  at  variance.  With 
great  dexterity  she  darted  the  beak  of  her  galley  against  the 
Lycian  vessel.  Damasithymus  was  buried  in  the  waves ;  and 
Amenias,  deceived  by  this  measure — equally  artful  and  auda- 
cious— believed  the  vessel  of  Artemisia  one  of  those  which 
had  deserted  the  Persian  interest.  The  Phoenician  and  Ionian 
squadrons  (for  that  of  the  Egyptians  had  been  exceedingly 
weakened  by  the  action  on  the  coast  of  Euboea)  formed  the 
main  strength  of  the  Persian  armament;  after  these  were 
defeated,  the  ships  at  a  distance  ventured  not  to  advance  ;  but, 
hastily  changing  sail,  measured  back  their  course  to  the 
Athenian  and  other  neighboring  harbors.  The  victors,  dis- 
daining to  pursue  them,  dragged  the  most  valuable  part  of 
the  wreck  to  the  coasts  of  Psyttalea  and  Salamis.  The  nar- 
row seas  were  covered  with  floating  carcasses  of  the  dead, 
among  whom  were  few  Greeks,  as  even  those  who  lost  their 
ships  in  the  engagement  saved  their  lives  by  swimming. 

Xerxes  had  scarcely  time  to  consider  and  deplore  the  de- 
struction and  disgrace  of  his  fleet,  when  a  new  spectacle,  not 
less  mournful,  offered  itself  to  his  sight.  The  flower  of  the 
Persian  infantry  had  taken  post  on  the  rocky  isle  of  Psyttalea, 
in  order  to  receive  the  shattered  remains  of  the  Grecian  arma- 
ment, which,  after  its  expected  defeat,  would  naturally  take 
refuge  on  that  barren  coast.  But  equally  fallacious  and  fatal 
was  their  conjecture  concerning  the  event  of  the  battle.  The 
16 


242  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

Greeks,  disembarking  from  their  ships,  attacked,  in  the  en- 
thusiasm of  victory,  those  astonished  troops,  who,  unable  to 
resist,  and  finding  it  impossible  to  fly,  were  cut  down  to  a 
man.  As  Xerxes  beheld  this  dreadful  havoc,  he  started  in 
wild  agitation  from  his  silver  throne,  rent  his  royal  robes, 
and  in  the  first  moment  of  his  returning  tranquillity  com- 
manded the  main  body  of  his  forces,  posted  along  the 
Athenian  coast,  to  return  to  their  respective  camps.  From 
that  moment  he  resolved  to  retreat  with  all  possible  expedi- 
tion into  Asia. 

When  the  Greeks  had  leisure  to  examine  the  extent  and 
completeness  of  their  success,  they  determined,  in  the  first 
emotions  of  triumph  and  resentment,  to  pursue  the  shattered 
remains  of  the  enemy.  That  no  Barbarian  might  escape,  they 
purposed  immediately  to  sail  northward,  to  destroy  the  Per- 
sian bridge  over  the  Hellespont,  and  thus  to  intercept  their 
return.  This  design  was  recommended  and  chiefly  supported 
by  the  Athenians,  who,  having  experienced  the  greatest  share 
of  the  danger,  felt  more  sensibly  the  joys  of  deliverance.  But, 
upon  more  mature  deliberation,  it  occurred  that  the  Persians 
were  still  sufficiently  numerous  to  afford  just  grounds  of 
terror.  To  their  cowardice  and  inexperience,  not  to  their 
want  of  strength,  the  Greeks  owed  all  their  advantages  over 
them  ;  but  should  the  impossibility  of  retreat  be  added  to  their 
other  calamities,  they  might  derive  courage  from  despair,  and, 
by  efforts  hitherto  unexerted,  repair  the  consequences  of 
their  past  errors  and  misfortunes.  These  considerations,  first 
suggested,  it  is  said,  by  Eurybiades  the  Spartan,  were  adopted 
by  Themistocles,  who  convinced  his  countrymen  that  the 
jealousy  of  the  Grecian  gods,  unwilling  that  one  man  should 
be  lord  of  Europe  and  Asia,  rather  than  their  own  prowess, 
had  given  them  the  victory  over  Xerxes,  a  prince  of  such  folly 
and  madness  that  he  had  treated  with  equal  irreverence  things 
human  and  divine,  destroyed  the  sacred  temples,  overthrown 
the  venerable  altars  and  images,  and  impiously  insulted  the 
gods  of  the  Hellespont  with  stripes  and  fetters.  That  it  was 
the  duty  of  the  Athenians,  after  having  gloriously  repelled  the 
common  enemy,  to  provide  for  the  subsistence  of  their  wives 
and  families,  to  sow  their  lands,  rebuild  their  houses,  and  thus 


THEMISTOCLES.  243 

to  repair,  by  the  most  industrious  activity,  the  dreadful  rav- 
ages committed  in  their  territories. 

Themistocles  had  no  sooner  persuaded  the  Athenians  to 
embrace  his  opinion  than  he  secretly  dispatched  his  confidant, 
Sicinus,  to  acquaint  the  great  king  with  the  danger  which  he 
had  so  nearly  escaped,  and  to  advise  him  to  pursue  his  journey 
with  all  possible  expedition.  Xerxes  readily  believed  a  piece 
of  information  which  agreed  with  the  suggestions  of  his  own 
timidity.  The  rapidity  of  his  march  conspired  with  famine 
and  other  circumstances  in  proving  fatal  to  the  lives  of  most 
of  his  followers ;  and  the  crafty  Athenian,  who,  knowing  the 
unstable  affections  of  the  multitude,  wished  to  deserve  the 
gratitude  of  a  king,  gained  the  double  advantage  of  dispelling, 
sooner  than  could  otherwise  have  happened,  that  destructive 
cloud  of  Barbarians  which  hovered  over  his  country,  and  of 
convincing  their  leader  that  he  was  in  part  indebted  for  his 
safety  to  that  very  man  whose  counsels,  rather  than  the  arms 
of  Greece,  had  occasioned  his  affliction  and  disgrace. — J. 
GILLIES. 


DEMOST  [ENES 


DEMOSTHENES,  the  cele- 
brated Athenian  orator  and 
statesman,  perhaps  the 
greatest  orator  that  ever 
lived,  was  a  son  of  Demos- 
thenes, a  cutler  and  opulent 
citizen  of  Athens,  and  was 
born  about  3843.0.  When 
he  was  but  seven  years  old 
his  father  died,  and  his 
guardians  converted  to 
their  own  use  a  large  part 
of  his  patrimony.  Though 
his  constitution  was  delicate  and  his  voice  feeble,  he  cherished, 
at  an  early  age,  an  ambition  to  be  an  orator.  He  studied 
rhetoric  with  Isaeus,  and  from  Plato  he  imbibed  much  of  the 
richness  and  grandeur  which  characterized  the  writings  of 
that  mighty  master.  But  his  rascally  guardians  defrauded 
his  tutors  of  their  salaries.  On  attaining  his  freedom,  about 
the  age  of  eighteen,  he  prosecuted  his  guardians,  denouncing 
them  in  five  orations,  and  gained  his  cause,  but  did  not  recover 
all  his  patrimony. 

His  attempts  at  public  political  speeches  were  less  success- 
ful, bringing  on  him  ridicule  for  his  stammering  voice  and 
ungraceful  gestures.  To  remedy  his  defects  he  adopted  heroic 
remedies  ;  to  cure  his  stammering  he  spoke  with  pebbles  in 
his  mouth ;  to  become  long-winded,  he  practiced  running  up 
hill ;  and  to  accustom  himself  to  the  turbulence  of  the  noisy 
assembly  of  the  people,  he  declaimed  on  the  seashore.  Nor 
was  this  all  his  peculiar  regimen.  He  built  a  subterranean 
244 


DEMOSTHENES. 


STATE  POSM.M  SCHOOL, 

CAU* 


DEMOSTHENES.  245 

study,  in  which  he  made  strenuous  and  persistent  efforts  to 
improve  his  oratorical  action  and  acquire  a  distinct  and 
orotund  utterance.  To  perfect  his  style  he  copied  many 
times  the  History  of  Thucydides,  which  abounds  in  terse 
orations.  The  great  statesman,  Pericles,  was  his  model  in 
action  and  delivery. 

When  Demosthenes  emerged  from  the  obscurity  of  his 
cell  and  his  genius  began  to  attract  public  attention,  one  of 
his  rivals  uttered  the  taunt  that  all  his  arguments  smelled  of 
the  lamp.  Demosthenes  retorted,  "  Yes,  indeed;  but  your  lamp 
and  mine  are  not  conscious  of  the  same  labors. "  He  practiced 
in  the  courts  as  an  advocate,  and  in  350  B.  c.  he  achieved  a 
decided  success  by  an  oration  against  Leptines.  His  principal 
fame  was  derived  from  his  political  orations,  which  form  a 
glorious  protest  against  the  moral  decadence  and  pervading 
corruption  of  the  times. 

The  chief  aim  of  his  public  career  was  to  resist  and  defeat 
the  ambitious  schemes  and  aggressive  operations  of  Philip  of 
Macedon.  Against  that  crafty  and  resolute  king  Demos- 
thenes, almost  single-handed,  undertook  to  defend  the  cause 
of  Grecian  democracy.  He  proved  himself  a  champion 
worthy  of  the  momentous  charge,  and  won  the  respect  of  the 
opponents  of  the  bold  truths  which  he  uttered.  But  he  never 
obtained  any  eminent  position ;  nor  did  he  lead  against  Philip 
those  armies  which  his  eloquence  had  raised.  Between  352 
and  340  B.  c.  he  delivered  eleven  orations  against  Philip,  and 
four  of  these  have  acquired  special  fame  as  Philippics.  Hav- 
ing persuaded  the  Athenians  of  their  duty  to  resist  the 
schemes  of  the  Macedonian  king,  he  next  went  as  an  ambas- 
sador to  other  Hellenic  States,  and  persuaded  nearly  all  to 
join  in  a  league  against  the  common  enemy.  But  Philip, 
with  his  well-drilled  Macedonian  phalanx,  gained  at  Chseronea 
in  338  B.C.  the  decisive  victory  which  was  fatal  to  the  liberty 
and  independence  of  Athens.  Demosthenes  was  there,  but  if 
we  are  to  believe  Plutarch,  ' '  he  performed  nothing  worthy  of 
the  glorious  things  he  had  spoken.  He  quitted  his  post ;  he 
threw  away  his  arms. ' ' 

Yet  after  this  crushing  defeat  the  orator,  whose  true  voca» 
tion  was  to  arouse  and  stimulate  patriotism,  continued  to  be 


246  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

the  foremost  man  in  the  State.  In  336  B.C.  Ctesiphon  pro- 
posed that  Demosthenes  should  receive  a  golden  crown  from 
the  city  as  a  reward  for  his  public  services,  as  had  been  done 
to  other  benefactors.  His  rival,  JEschines,  opposed  this 
measure  as  unconstitutional,  and  the  trial  of  this  celebrated 
cause  before  the  assembly  of  the  people  was  postponed  until 
330.  The  oration  of  Demosthenes,  "  On  the  Crown,"  which 
was  really  a  defence  of  his  entire  public  career,  is  undoubt- 
edly his  masterpiece,  and  the  most  perfect  specimen  of 
eloquence  that  was  ever  produced.  Demosthenes  triumphed, 
and  ^Sschines  was  banished.  More  than  four-fifths  of  the 
numerous  judges  in  this  trial  voted  against  ^schines. 

In  the  year  324  the  incorruptible  patriot  was  accused  of 
receiving  a  bribe  from  Harpalus,  a  defaulting  steward  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  with  whom  he  had  had  some  dealings. 
Strange  to  say,  he  was  convicted  and  fined  fifty  talents;  but  he 
avoided  the  payment  of  the  fine  by  going  into  exile.  Modern 
historical  critics  doubt  the  truth  of  this  charge  and  the  justice 
of  the  penalty,  and  attribute  the  conviction  to  political  rancor. 
When  Demosthenes  quitted  his  native  city  in  disgrace  and 
bitterness  of  soul,  he  lifted  up  his  hands  toward  the  Acropolis 
and  said,  "O  Athene,  goddess  of  those  towers,  why  dost  thou 
delight  in  three  such  monsters  as  an  owl,  a  dragon,  and  the 
people?"  Soon  after  the  death  of  Alexander,  in  323  B.C., 
Demosthenes  was  recalled  and  returned  in  triumph.  But  his 
exultation  was  of  short  duration,  and  his  death  having  been 
decreed  by  Antipater,  now  King  of  Macedon,  he  ended  his  life 
by  poison  in  322  B.C. 

About  sixty  of  his  orations  are  extant.  "His  style,"  says 
Hume,  "is  rapid  harmony  exactly  adjusted  to  the  sense  ;  it  is 
vehement  reasoning  without  any  appearance  of  art ;  it  is  dis- 
dain, anger,  boldness,  freedom,  involved  in  a  continued  stream 
of  argument. "  He  affects  no  learning,  exhibits  no  ostenta- 
tious declamation,  seeks  no  glaring  ornaments.  Yet  by  the 
power  of  his  unadorned  eloquence,  he  wielded  against  the 
most  powerful  king  of  the  time  the  fierce  and  turbulent 
democracy.  In  his  person  were  united  the  ardent  patriot,  the 
far-seeing  statesman,  with  the  consummate  and  unapproach- 
able artist 


DEMOSTHENES.  247 

DEMOSTHENES  AGAINST  PHILIP. 

When  you  hear  described,  men  of  Athens  !  the  continual 
hostilities  by  which  Philip  violates  the  peace,  I  observe  that 
you  approve  the  equity  and  patriotism  of  those  who  support 
the  rights  of  the  Republic ;  but  while  nothing  is  done,  on 
account  of  which  it  is  worth  while  to  listen  to  such  speeches, 
our  affairs  are  brought  to  such  a  pass  that  the  more  clearly 
we  convict  Philip  of  perfidy  towards  you,  and  of  hostile 
designs  against  Greece,  the  more  difficult  it  is  to  propose  any 
seasonable  advice.  The  cause  of  this  difficulty  is,  that  the 
encroachments  of  ambition  must  be  repelled,  not  by  words, 
but  by  deeds.  If  speeches  and  reasonings  sufficed,  we  should 
long  ere  now  have  prevailed  over  our  adversary.  But  Philip 
excels  in  actions  as  much  as  we  do  in  arguments ;  and  both 
of  us  obtain  the  superiority  in  what  forms  respectively  the 
chief  object  of  our  study  and  concern  ;  we  in  our  assemblies, 
Philip  in  the  field. 

Immediately  after  the  peace,  the  King  of  Macedon  became 
master  of  Phocis  and  Thermopylae,  and  made  such  use  of 
these  acquisitions  as  suited  the  interest  of  Thebes,  not  of 
Athens.  Upon  what  principle  did  he  act  thus?  Because, 
governed  in  all  his  proceedings,  not  by  the  love  of  peace  and 
justice,  but  by  an  insatiable  lust  of  power,  he  saw  the  impos- 
sibility of  bending  the  Athenians  to  his  selfish  and  tyrannical 
purposes.  He  knew  that  the  loftiness  of  their  character 
would  never  stoop  to  private  considerations,  but  prefer  to  any 
advantage  that  he  might  offer  them,  the  dictates  of  justice  and 
of  honor ;  and  that  neither  their  penetration,  nor  their  dignity, 
could  ever  be  prevailed  on  to  sacrifice  to  a  partial  and  tempo- 
rary interest,  the  general  safety  of  Greece ;  but  that  they 
would  fight  for  each  member  of  the  Confederacy  with  the 
same  ardor  as  for  their  own  walls.  The  Thebans  he  judged 
(and  he  judged  aright)  to  be  more  assailable ;  he  knew  their 
folly  and  their  meanness  to  be  such,  that  provided  he  heaped 
benefits  on  themselves,  they  would  assist  him  to  enslave  their 
neighbors.  Upon  the  same  principle  he  now  cultivates,  in 
preference  to  yours,  the  friendship  of  the  Messenians  and 
Argives  ;  a  circumstance,  Athenians  !  which  highly  redounds 


248  .    HISTORIC  CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

to  your  honor,  since  Philip  thus  declares  his  persuasion  that 
you  alone  have  wisdom  to  understand,  and  virtue  to  oppose 
his  designs ;  that  you  foresee  the  drift  of  all  his  negotiations 
and  wars,  and  are  determined  to  be  the  incorruptible  defend- 
ers of  the  common  cause.  Nor  is  it  without  good  grounds 
that  he  entertains  such  an  honorable  opinion  of  you,  and  the 
contrary  of  the  Thebans  and  Argives.  When  the  liberties  of 
Greece  were  threatened  by  Persia,  as  they  now  are  by  Mace- 
don,  the  Thebans  basely  followed  the  standard  of  the  invaders ; 
the  Argives  did  not  oppose  their  arms ;  while  the  magnani- 
mous patriots,  from  whom  you  are  descended,  spurned  offers, 
highly  advantageous,  made  them  by  Alexander  of  Macedou, 
the  ancestor  of  Philip,  who  acted  as  the  ambassador  of  Persia. 
Your  fathers,  preferring  the  public  interest  to  their  own,  pro- 
voked the  devastation  of  their  land  and  the  destruction  of  their 
capital,  and  performed,  in  defence  of  Greece,  those  unrivalled 
exploits  of  heroism  which  can  never  be  celebrated  with  due 
praise.  For  such  reasons,  Philip  chooses  for  his  allies 
Thebes,  Argos,  and  Messene,  rather  than  Athens  and  Sparta. 
The  former  States  possess  not  greater  strength,  wealth,  fleets, 
harbors,  and  armies ;  they  have  not  more  power,  but  less 
virtue.  Nor  can  Philip  plead  the  merits  of  their  cause;  since, 
if  Chaeronea  and  Orchomenus  are  justly  subject  to  Thebes, 
Argos  and  Messene  are  justly  subject  to  Lacedaemon ;  nor 
could  it  be  equitable  to  enslave  the  inferior  cities  of  Bceotia, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  teach  those  of  Peloponnesus  to  rebel. 
But  Philip  was  compelled  to  this  conduct  (for  this  is  the 
only  remaining  argument  that  can  be  alleged  in  his  defence). 
' '  Surrounded  by  the  Thessalian  cavalry  and  Theban  infantry, 
he  was  obliged  to  assist  allies  whom  he  distrusted,  and  to  con- 
cur with  measures  which  he  disapproved.  Hence  the  severe 
treatment  of  Phocis,  hence  the  cruel  servitude  of  Orchomenus 
and  Chaeronea.  The  King  of  Macedon,  being  now  at  liberty 
to  consult  the  dictates  of  his  own  humanity  and  justice,  is 
desirous  to  re-establish  the  Republic  of  Phocis ;  and,  in  order 
to  bridle  the  insolence  of  Thebes,  actually  meditates  the  forti- 
fying of  Elatea."  This,  indeed,  he  meditates,  and  will 
meditate  long.  But  he  does  not  meditate  the  destruction  of 
Lacedaemon.  For  this  purpose  he  has  remitted  money,  he 


DEMOSTHENES.  249 

has  sent  his  mercenaries,  he  is  prepared,  himself,  to  march 
at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army.  His  present  transactions 
sufficiently  explain  the  motives  of  his  conduct.  It  is  evident 
that  he  acts  from  system,  and  that  his  principal  batteries  are 
erected  against  Athens  itself.  How  can  it  be  otherwise?  He 
is  ambitious  to  rule  Greece  ;  you  alone  are  capable  to  thwart 
his  measures.  He  has  long  treated  you  unworthily  ;  and  he  is 
conscious  of  his  injustice.  He  is  actually  contriving  your 
destruction,  and  he  is  sensible  that  you  see  through  his 
designs.  For  all  these  reasons  he  knows  that  you  detest  him, 
and  that  should  he  not  anticipate  your  hostility,  he  must  fall 
a  victim  to  your  just  vengeance.  Hence  he  is  ever  active  and 
alert,  watching  a  favorable  moment  of  assault,  and  practicing 
on  the  stupidity  and  selfishness  of  the  Thebans  and  Pelopon- 
nesians ;  for  if  they  were  not  stupid  and  blind,  they  might 
perceive  the  fatal  aim  of  the  Macedonian  policy.  I  once 
spoke  on  this  subject  before  the  Messenians  and  Argives; 
my  discourse,  which  was  useless  to  them,  may,  perhaps  not 
unseasonably,  be  repeated  to  you. 

"Men  of  Argos  and  Messene !  you  remember  the  time 
when  Philip  caressed  the  Olynthians,  as  he  now  does  you  ; 
how  highly,  do  you  think,  that  infatuated  people  would  have 
been  offended,  had  any  man  talked  against  the  benefactor 
who  had  generously  bestowed  on  them  Anthemus  and 
Potidsea?  Had  any  man  warned  them  against  the  dangerous 
artifices  of  Philip,  would  they  have  listened  to  his  advice? 
Yet,  after  enjoying  for  a  moment  the  territories  of  their  neigh- 
bors, they  were  forever  despoiled  of  their  own.  Inglorious 
was  their  fall ;  not  conquered  only,  but  betrayed  and  sold  by 
one  another.  Turn  your  eyes  to  the  Thessalians.  When 
Philip  expelled  their  tyrants,  could  the  Thessalians  ever  con- 
jecture that  the  same  prince  would  subject  them  to  the  crea- 
tures of  Macedon,  still  more  tyrannical  and  oppressive?  When 
he  restored  them  to  their  seat  and  suffrage  in  the  Amphictyonic 
Council,  could  they  have  been  persuaded  that  he  would  one 
day  deprive  them  of  the  management  of  their  own  revenues? 
As  to  you,  Messenians  and  Argives !  you  have  beheld  Philip 
smiling  and  deceiving ;  but  beware  !  pray  to  heaven,  that  you 
may  never  behold  him  insulting,  threatening  and  destroying. 


250 


HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 


Various  are  the  contrivances  which  communities  have  dis- 
covered for  their  defence ;  walls,  ramparts,  battlements,  all  of 
which  are  raised  by  the  labor  of  man,  and  supported  by  con- 
tinual expense  and  toil.  But  there  is  one  common  bulwark, 
which  only  the  prudent  employ,  though  alike  useful  to  all, 
especially  to  free  cities  against  tyrants.  What  is  that  ?  Dis- 
trust. Of  this  be  mindful ;  to  this  adhere  ;  preserve  this  care- 
fully, and  no  calamity  can  befall  you." — From  the  SECOND 
PHILIPPIC. 


THENS,  during  all  the  period  of  its  dem- 
ocratic government,  had  an  aristocratic 
party,  and  a  succession  of  aristocratic 
leaders.  These  were  usually  men  of  an- 
cient and  wealthy  families,  who  took  an 
active  part  in  public  affairs,  were  person- 
ally respected  for  their  probity,  and  often 
manifested  a  philosophic  contempt  for  luxury.  These  esti- 
mable aristocrats  were  at  times  entrusted  by  the  despised 
people  with  the  highest  offices  and  commands ;  yet  their  efforts 
were  mainly  directed  towards  repressing  the  natural  move- 
ment of  the  people  and  their  chosen  system  of  government. 
No  better  type  of  this  class  can  be  found  than  Phocion, 
the  strenuous  opponent  of  Demosthenes.  This  sternly  up- 
right statesman,  whose  private  virtues,  in  a  time  of  general 
corruption,  won  for  him  the  surname  of  ' '  The  Good, ' '  was  yet 
the  ready  instrument  in  subjecting  his  native  city  to  the 
power  of  Philip  of  Macedon. 

Phocion  was  born  at  Athens  about  the  year  402  B.C.  He 
received  an  excellent  education  and  attended  the  lectures  of 
Plato.  His  military  training  was  commenced  under  Chabrias, 
an  experienced  commander.  By  him  Phocion,  while  yet  a 
young  man,  was  commissioned  with  twenty  galleys  to  collect 
tribute  from  the  allies  of  Athens.  But  he  sagely  objected  to 
the  size  of  the  fleet,  saying,  ' '  To  meet  enemies  the  force  was 
insufficient ;  to  visit  friends  it  was  needlessly  great. ' '  Chabrias 
then  allowed  him  to  go  with  a  single  galley,  which  he  provided 
at  his  own  expense.  He  made  this  mission  unusually  accept- 

251 


252  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

able,  and  numerous  vessels  of  the  allies  voluntarily  attended 
him  home,  bearing  the  full  amount  of  tribute.  This  was  the 
first  time  within  memory  that  the  expense  of  equipping  an 
expedition  had  been  undertaken  by  individuals. 

In  the  naval  battle  of  Naxos,  in  September,  376,  Phocion 
commanded  the  left  wing  of  the  fleet,  and  contributed  largely 
by  his  skillful  tactics  to  obtain  a  signal  victory  over  the  Spar- 
tans. Athens  then  gave  Phocion  the  command  of  the  forces 
sent  to  the  aid  of  Plutarch  against  Philip  of  Macedon,  expect- 
ing that  the  Euboeans  would  immediately  rise  and  join  him. 
But  Phocion  found  them  corrupted  by  Philip's  money  and  dis- 
affected to  their  own  country.  Plutarch  himself  repaid  his 
benefactors  with  ingratitude,  and  endeavored  openly  to  repulse 
the  army  he  had  requested.  However,  Phocion  on  the  plains 
of  Tamynae  won  a  decided  victory,  and  expelled  Plutarch 
from  Eretria.  He  then  took  the  Fort  of  Zaretra,  advan- 
tageously situated  on  a  point  at  the  end  of  the  island.  After 
this  success  he  sailed  back  to  Athens. 

Philip  now  determined,  if  possible,  to  gain  possession  of 
the  Chersonesus,  Perinthus  and  Byzantium,  but  was  still 
very  cautious  of  displeasing  the  Athenians.  At  least  whilst 
besieging  Byzantium,  he  wrote  to  them  a  letter  upbraiding 
them  in  the  strongest  terms  for  their  infraction  of  treaties. 
Demosthenes  told  the  Athenians  that  this  letter  was  a  plain 
declaration  of  war,  and  Phocion  being  general,  led  his  troops  to 
the  succor  of  the  Byzantines.  His  prudence  and  the  bravery  of 
his  army  forced  Philip  to  abandon  his  design.  Phocion  cap- 
tured some  of  his  ships,  recovered  many  fortresses,  and  drove 
him  from  the  Hellespont.  The  King  of  Macedon  now  made 
overtures  of  peace.  Phocion,  apprehensive  of  the  uncertainty 
of  supplies,  urged  the  Athenians  to  accept  his  offers;  but 
Demosthenes,  believing  that  Philip's  only  view  was  to  gain 
time,  prevented  them  from  listening  to  pacific  proposals. 
Demosthenes  advised  that  the  war  should  be  carried  on  as  far 
as  possible  from  Attica.  This  drew  from  Phocion,  the  expe- 
rienced general,  the  remark:  "  My  good  friend,  consider  not 
so  much  where  we  shall  fight,  as  how  we  shall  conquer  ;  for 
victory  is  the  only  thing  that  can  keep  war  at  a  distance  :  if 
we  are  beaten,  every  danger  will  soon  be  at  our  gates. ' '  The 


PHOCION.  253 

Athenians  did  lose  the  day  at  Chaeronsea  (338  B.C.),  and  then 
decided,  against  the  advice  of  Phocion,  that  Athens  should  be 
comprehended  in  the  general  peace,  made  at  Corinth,  and  as 
one  of  the  States  of  Greece,  should  have  the  same  terms 
with  the  other  cities.  When,  afterwards,  the  Athenians 
repented,  because  they  were  obliged  to  furnish  Philip  with 
vessels  and  cavalry,  Phocion  observed,  "  This  was  the  thing 
I  feared  ;  and  on  it  my  opposition  was  founded.  But  since 
you  have  signed  the  treaty,  you  must  bear  its  inconveniences 
without  murmuring  or  despondence  ;  remembering  that  your 
ancestors  sometimes  gave  law  to  their  neighbors,  and  some- 
times were  forced  to  submit,  but  did  both  with  honor;  and 
by  that  means  saved  themselves  and  all  Greece." 

When  the  news  of  Philip's  death  was  brought  to  Athens, 
Phocion  would  not  permit  any  public  rejoicing.  ' '  Nothing, ' ' 
said  he,  ' '  could  show  greater  meanness  of  spirit  than  expres- 
sions of  joy  on  the  death  of  an  enemy. "  Demosthenes,  with 
all  the  power  of  his  oratory,  now  urged  the  Athenians  against 
submitting  to  Alexander,  whose  military  abilities  were  soon 
shown  in  his  capture  of  Thebes.  Phocion  directly  opposed 
Demosthenes.  ' '  When  you  see, ' '  he  remarked,  ' '  such  a  dread- 
ful fire  near  you,  could  you  plunge  Athens  into  it  ?  For  my 
part,  I  will  not  suffer  you  to  ruin  yourselves,  though  your 
inclinations  lie  that  way  ;  and  to  prevent  every  step  of  that 
kind  is  the  end  I  proposed  in  taking  the  command." 
Phocion,  in  an  embassy  to  Alexander,  advised  him,  ' '  If  tran- 
quillity be  your  object,  put  an  end  to  your  wars  ;  if  glory, 
leave  the  Greeks  in  quiet,  and  turn  your  arms  against  the 
barbarians."  Alexander  followed  his  suggestion,  and  was 
pleased  to  say,  "The  people  of  Athens  must  be  very  atten- 
tive to  the  affairs  of  Greece  :  for  if  anything  happens  to  me, 
the  supreme  direction  will  devolve  upon  them. ' '  He  after- 
wards sent  to  Phocion  a  present  of  a  hundred  talents,  which 
the  incorruptible  patriot  unhesitatingly  refused.  Again  was 
he  offered  by  the  same  monarch  the  choice  of  one  of  four 
Asiatic  cities;  but  this  gift  the  Athenian  likewise  declined. 

After  the  death  of  Alexander  in  323  B.C.,  Phocion  pursued 
his  usual  line  of  policy  in  the  Lamian  war,  by  which  Athens 
sought  to  regain  independence.  When  that  conflict  had 


254  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

eventuated  unfavorably  for  Athens,  he  was  sent  to  treat  with 
Antipater,  King  of  Macedon,  for  peace.  In  this  he  succeeded, 
and  Antipater,  recognizing  his  high  personal  character,  vested 
in  him  the  chief  authority  of  Athens.  But  12,000  citizens 
were  disfranchised,  and  the  anti-Macedonian  leaders  put  to 
death.  Thus  was  the  voice  of  the  democracy  silenced. 

But  the  death  of  Antipater,  in  318,  renewed  the  troubles. 
The  Athenians  returning  held  an  assembly,  and  voted  the 
complete  re-establishment  of  democracy,  and  the  death  or 
banishment  of  all  who  had  held  office  in  the  oligarchy,  of 
whom  the  most  conspicuous  was  Phocion.  The  exiles  fled  to 
the  camp  of  Alexander,  son  of  Polysperchon,  and  were  sent 
by  him  to  his  father's  court.  They  were  followed  thither 
by  an  Athenian  embassy,  which  demanded  their  sur- 
render. Polysperchon  gave  up  the  fugitives.  When  Phocion 
and  the  others  were  brought  before  the  assembly,  their  voices 
were  drowned  by  the  clamor  of  their  judges.  Every  one  who 
attempted  to  speak  in  favor  of  the  accused  was  hooted  down 
as  a  traitor  to  democracy.  They  were  all  condemned  to  die. 
One  wretch  is  said  to  have  spat  on  Phocion,  as  he  and  the 
others  were  led  back  to  prison.  With  unruffled  composure  he 
only  looked  towards  the  magistrates  and  asked,  "Will  no  one 
stop  this  man's  indecency?"  Phocion  was  the  last  of  the 
prisoners  to  die  (317  B.C.).  Before  he  drank  the  hemlock,  he 
was  asked  if  he  had  any  message  for  his  son  ;  he  replied,  ' '  I 
bid  him  cherish  no  resentment  against  the  Athenians. ' '  The 
people  soon  repented  of  their  hasty  act;  they  erected  to  Phocion 
a  statue  of  brass,  and  honored  his  remains  with  a  public 
funeral.  His  principal  accuser  was  put  to  death,  and  the 
others  driven  into  exile. 

Phocion,  though  not  eloquent,  was  a  singularly  ready  and 
acute  debater,  and  his  opinion  carried  weight  from  his  well 
established  character  for  uprightness.  In  politics  his  distrust 
of  the  people  led  him  to  counsel  peace,  and  to  side  with  the 
Macedonian  party.  His  motives  were  pure  and  unselfish,  and 
his  desire  for  peace  sincere.  Yet  as  a  warrior  he  possessed 
eminent  ability,  and  was  elected  annually  to  the  office  of 
general  no  less  than  forty-five  times.  He  lived  in  unostenta- 
tious frugality.  He  is  most  conspicuous  as  the  unrelenting 


PHOCION.  255 

adversary  of  Demosthenes.  The  great  orator  recognized  his 
opponent's  influence,  and  when  Phocion  rose  to  speak, 
whispered  to  his  friends,  ' '  Here  comes  the  chopper  of  my 
speeches .' '  Phocion  was  the  last  of  the  Athenian  statesmen 
who  combined  the  characters  of  legislator  and  general. 

PHOCION' s  SAYINGS. 

Phocion  was  one  of  the  most  humane  and  best-tempered 
men  in  the  world,  and  yet  he  had  so  ill-natured  and  forbidding 
a  look  that  strangers  were  afraid  to  address  him  without 
company.  Therefore,  when  Chares,  the  orator,  observed  to  the 
Athenians  what  terrible  brows  Phocion  had,  and  they  could 
not  help  enjoying  the  remark,  he  calmly  said,  "This  brow  of 
mine  never  gave  one  of  you  an  hour  of  sorrow ;  but  the 
laughter  of  these  sneerers  has  cost  their  country  many  a  tear. ' ' 
In  like  manner,  though  the  measures  he  proposed  were 
happy  ones,  and  his  counsels  of  the  most  salutary  kind,  yet 
he  used  no  flowers  of  rhetoric  ;  his  speeches  were  concise, 
commanding,  and  severe.  For,  as  Zeno  says,  that  a  philoso- 
pher should  never  let  a  word  come  out  of  his  mouth  that  is 
not  strongly  tinctured  with  sense,  so  Phocion' s  oratory  con- 
tained the  most  sense  in  the  fewest  words.  And  it  seems  that 
Polyeuctus,  the  Sphettian,  had  this  view  when  he  said, 
"  Demosthenes  was  the  better  orator,  and  Phocion  the  more 
persuasive  speaker."  His  speeches  were  to  be  estimated  like 
coins,  not  for  the  size,  but  for  the  intrinsic  value.  Agreeably 
to  which  we  are  told  that  one  day,  when  the  theatre  was  full 
of  people,  Phocion  was  observed  behind  the  scenes  wrapt  up 
in  thought,  when  one  of  his  friends  took  occasion  to  say, 
"What!  at  your  meditations,  Phocion?"  "Yes,"  said  he, 
"  I  am  considering  whether  I  cannot  shorten  what  I  have  to 
say  to  the  Athenians."  His  influence  with  the  people  is 
chiefly  to  be  ascribed  to  the  excellence  of  his  character,  since 
a  word  or  a  nod  from  a  person  revered  for  his  virtue  is  of 
more  weight  than  the  most  elaborate  speeches  of  other  men. 

Phocion  not  only  honored  and  paid  his  court  to  Chabrias 
as  long  as  he  lived,  but,  after  his  death,  continued  his  atten- 
tions to  all  that  belonged  to  him.  With  his  son,  Ctesippus, 
he  took  peculiar  care  to  form  him  to  virtue  ;  and  though  he 


256  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

found  him  very  stupid  and  untractable,  yet  he  still  labored  to 
correct  his  errors,  as  well  as  to  conceal  them.  Once,  indeed, 
his  patience  failed  him.  In  one  of  his  expeditions  the  young 
man  was  so  troublesome  with  unseasonable  questions  and 
attempts  to  give  advice,  as  if  he  knew  how  to  direct  the 
operations  better  than  the  general,  that  at  last  he  cried  out, 
"O  Chabrias,  Chabrias !  what  a  return  do  I  make  thee  for 
thy  favors,  in  bearing  with  the  impertinencies  of  thy  son  !" 

He  observed  that  those  who  took  upon  them  the  manage- 
ment of  public  affairs  made  two  departments  of  them — the 
civil  and  the  military,  which  they  shared  as  it  were  by  lot. 
Pursuant  to  this  division,  Demosthenes,  Lycurgus  and  Hype- 
rides  addressed  the  people  from  the  rostrum,  and  proposed 
new  edicts ;  while  Leosthenes  and  Chares  raised  themselves 
by  the  honors  and  employments  of  the  camp.  But  Phocion 
chose  rather  to  move  in  the  line  of  Pericles,  Aristides  and 
Solon,  who  excelled  not  only  as  orators,  but  as  generals,  for 
he  thought  their  fame  more  complete ;  and  he  knew  that  the 
tutelar  goddess  of  Athens  was  equally  the  patroness  of  arts 
and  arms. 

When  an  oracle  from  Delphi  was  read  in  the  assembly, 
importing,  ' '  That  the  rest  of  the  Athenians  were  unanimous 
in  their  opinions,  and  there  was  only  one  man  who  dissented 
from  them,"  Phocion  forthwith  arose  and  said,  "They  need 
not  give  themselves  any  trout  le  in  inquiring  for  this  refrac- 
tory citizen,  for  he  was  the  man  who  liked  not  anything  they 
did."  And  another  time  in  a  public  debate,  when  his  opinion 
happened  to  be  received  with  universal  applause,  he  turned 
to  his  friends  and  said,  "  Have  I  inadvertently  let  some  bad 
thing  slip  from  me?" 

The  Athenians  were  one  day  making  a  collection  to  defray 
the  expense  of  a  public  sacrifice,  and  numbers  gave  liberally . 
Phocion  was  importuned  to  contribute  among  the  rest,  but 
he  bade  them  apply  to  the  rich.  "I  should  be  ashamed," 
said  he,  "to  give  you  anything,  and  not  to  pay  this  man 
what  I  owe  him;"  pointing  to  the  usurer  Callicles.  And  as 
they  continued  very  clamorous  and  teasing,  he  told  them  this 
tale:  "A  cowardly  fellow  once  resolved  to  make  a  cam- 
paign ;  but  when  he  was  set  out  the  ravens  began  to  croak, 


PHOCION.  257 

and  he  laid  down  his  arms  and  stopped.  When  the  first 
alarm  was  a  little  over,  he  marched  again.  The  ravens 
renewed  their  croaking,  and  then  he  made  a  full  stop,  and 
said,  *  You  may  croak  your  hearts  out  if  you  choose,  but  you 
shall  not  taste  my  carcass.'  " 

The  Athenians  once  insisted  on  his  leading  them  against 
the  enemy,  and  when  he  refused,  they  told  him  nothing 
could  be  more  dastardly  and  spiritless  than  his  behavior.  He 
answered,  "You  can  neither  make  me  valiant,  nor  can  I 
make  you  cowards ;  however,  we  know  one  another  very 
well." 

Public  affairs  happening  to  be  in  a  dangerous  situation, 
the  people  were  greatly  exasperated  against  him,  and  de- 
manded an  immediate  account  of  his  conduct.  Upon  which 
he  only  said,  ' '  My  good  friends,  first  get  out  of  your  diffi- 
culties." 

During  a  war,  however,  they  were  generally  humble  and 
submissive,  and  it  was  not  till  after  peace  was  made  that  they 
began  to  talk  in  a  vaunting  manner,  and  to  find  fault  with 
their  general.  As  they  were  one  time  telling  Phocion  he  had 
robbed  them  of  the  victory  which  was  in  their  hands,  he  said, 
"It  is  happy  for  you  that  you  have  a  general  who  knows 
you ;  otherwise  you  would  have  been  ruined  long  ago. ' ' 

Having  a  difference  with  the  Boeotians,  which  they  re- 
fused to  settle  by  treaty,  and  proposed  to  decide  by  the  sword, 
Phocion  said,  "Good  people,  keep  to  the  method  in  which 
you  have  the  advantage  ;  and  that  is  talking,  not  fighting." 

One  day,  determined  not  to  follow  his  advice,  they  refused 
to  give  him  a  hearing.  But  he  said,  ' '  Though  you  can  make 
me  act  against  my  judgment,  you  shall  never  make  me  speak 
so." 

Demosthenes,  the  greatest  orator  of  the  adverse  party, 
happening  to  say,  "The  Athenians  will  certainly  kill  thee, 
Phocion,  if  they  get  mad,"  he  answered,  "They  may  kill 
me,  if  they  get  mad ;  but  it  will  be  you,  if  they  are  in  their 
senses. ' ' 

When  Polyeuctus,  the  Sphettian,  advised  the  Athenians  to 
make  war  upon  Philip,  the  weather  being  hot,  and  the  orator 
a  corpulent  man,  he  ran  himself  out  of  breath,  and  perspired 
17 


258 


HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 


so  violently  that  lie  was  forced  to  take  several  draughts  of 
cold  water  before  he  could  finish  his  speech.  Phocion,  seeing 
him  in  such  a  condition,  thus  addressed  the  assembly — "You 
have  great  reason  to  pass  an  edict  for  the  war  upon  this  man's 
recommendation.  For  what  are  you  not  to  expect  from  him 
when,  loaded  with  a  suit  of  armor,  he  marches  against  the 
enemy,  if  in  delivering  to  you  peaceable  folks  a  speech  he 
had  composed  at  his  leisure,  he  is  ready  to  be  suffocated?" 

Lycurgus,  the  orator,  one  day  said  many  disparaging  things 
of  him  in  the  general  assembly,  and,  among  the  rest,  observed 
that  when  Alexander  demanded  ten  of  their  orators,  Phocion 
gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  they  should  be  delivered  to  him. 
"It  is  true,"  said  Phocion,  "I  have  given  the  people  of 
Athens  much  good  counsel ;  but  they  do  not  follow  it." 

All  these  sayings  have  something  so  severe  in  them  that 
it  seems  strange  that  a  man  of  such  austere  and  unpopular 
manners  should  ever  get  the  surname  of  u  The  Good."  It  is 
indeed  difficult,  but  I  believe  not  impossible,  for  the  same 
man  to  be  both  rough  and  gentle,  as  some  wines  are  both 
sweet  and  sour ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  some  men  who  have 
a  great  appearance  of  gentleness  in  their  temper  are  very 
harsh  and  vexatious  to  those  who  have  to  do  with  them.  In 
this  case,  the  saying  of  Hyperides  to  the  people  of  Athens 
deserves  notice:  "  Examine  not  whether  I  am  severe  upon 
you,  but  whether  I  am  so  for  my  own  sake."  As  if  it  were 
avarice  only  that  makes  a  minister  odious  to  the  people,  and 
the  abuse  of  power  to  the  purposes  of  pride,  envy,  anger  or 
revenge,  did  not  make  a  man  equally  obnoxious. — PLUTARCH. 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT  has  always 
been  regarded  by  the  English  people 
as  their  ideal  king,  and  is  pro- 
nounced by  the  eminent  historian, 
Edward  A.  Freeman,  "the  most 
perfect  character  in  history."  Yet 
he  lived  in  a  rude  and  barbarous 
age  when  might  made  right,  when 
the  violence  of  savage  enemies  com- 
pelled every  man  constantly  to  resort 
to  arms  to  protect  his  person  and 
possessions,  and  allowed  little  op- 
portunity to  cultivate  the  arts  of  peace.  When  war  was  neces- 
sary to  defend  his  country,  Alfred  proved  himself  a  valiant 
soldier  and  skillful  military  leader.  When  peace  was  estab- 
lished he  devoted  himself  to  the  promotion  of  justice  and  the 
welfare  of  his  people.  In  the  midst  of  the  turmoil  of  war 
and  battle  he  retained  the  love  of  learning  which  his  pious 
mother  had  inculcated,  and  when  happier  times  came  at  last, 
he  endeavored,  by  writing  books  and  founding  institutions  of 
learning,  to  transmit  to  posterity  the  means  of  enlightenment 
Alfred  was  born  at  Wantage,  in  Berkshire,  850  A.D.  His 
father,  Ethelwulf,  before  coming  to  the  throne,  had  been  a 
monk.  Ethelwulf  married  Osberga,  the  daughter  of  his  cup- 
bearer, and  by  her  he  had  four  sons,  of  whom  Alfred  was  the 
youngest  When  he  was  twelve  years  old,  his  mother  offered 
a  handsomely  illuminated  book  of  Saxon  poems  to  the  son 
who  first  should  be  able  to  read  them.  Alfred  obtained  the 
prize,  and  henceforth  he  showed  a  studious  disposition  and 
great  love  for  literature.  While  still  a  boy  he  was  taken 
by  his  father  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  and  undoubtedly 

259 


260  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS, 

received  deep  impressions  from  the  splendid  monuments  of 
the  Eternal  City. 

At  his  accession  to  the  throne  of  Wessex,  the  country  of 
the  West  Saxons,  in  871  A.D.,  Alfred  was  twenty-one  years  of 
age.  The  infant  son  of  his  elder  brother,  Ethelwald,  being 
alive,  Alfred  was  not  the  rightful  heir ;  but  owing  to  the 
troublous  state  of  the  country  at  that  period,  the  nobles 
requested  him  to  take  the  crown,  as  being  more  capable  of 
guarding  its  rights.  He  had  already  been  married  to  Alswitha, 
the  daughter  of  a  Mercian  nobleman.  The  Danes,  who  from 
the  time  of  Egbert,  had  been  constantly  making  depredations 
in  England,  now  invaded  Wessex,  and  defeated  Alfred  in 
battle  at  Wilton,  in  Wiltshire.  The  Danes,  on  receiving  a 
large  sum  of  money,  withdrew  from  Wessex.  They,  however, 
continued  their  ravages  in  the  North  of  England,  slaughtering 
the  people  without  mercy,  and  laying  waste  the  country. 
Alfred  retired  south  of  the  Thames  and  equipped  a  fleet, 
which,  in  some  measure,  checked  the  attacks  of  the  Danes. 
While  Alfred  was  residing  at  Chippenham,  on  the  river  Avon, 
Guthrum,  a  Danish  leader,  attacked  this  town  at  night,  in 
the  middle  of  winter,  and  the  King  had  to  flee  for  his  life. 
He  wandered  through  the  country  for  some  time  in  disguise. 
It  is  related  by  the  chroniclers  of  that  day,  that  the  King 
sought  shelter  in  the  house  of  a  swineherd.  The  wife  of  his 
humble  host,  being  engaged  in  her  homely  duties,  requested 
the  stranger  to  turn  some  cakes,  which  she  was  baking,  to 
prevent  them  burning.  The  thoughts  of  Alfred  were  far 
away,  considering  the  best  means  of  defeating  his  enemies. 
The  cakes  were  burned,  and  the  woman,  on  discovering  his 
neglect,  soundly  berated  her  guest,  saying  that  he  would  be 
glad  enough  to  eat  the  cakes,  but  was  too  lazy  to  turn  them. 

In  the  county  of  Somerset,  at  the  junction  of  the  rivers 
Parret  and  Tone,  was  a  marshy  island,  now  called  Athelney. 
This,  for  many  months,  was  Alfred's  hiding  place  ;  and  here 
he  was  frequently  visited  by  his  nobles,  who  were  secretly 
preparing  to  make  one  great  and  final  struggle  to  overthrow 
the  Danes.  Alfred,  in  the  disguise  of  a  harper,  now  left  his 
hiding  place,  and  boldly  visited  the  camp  of  Guthrum.  His 
enemies  were  captivated  with  his  music,  and  kept  him  there 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT.  26 1 

for  several  days,  during  which  he  overheard  them  discussing 
their  plans  of  further  attack  on  the  Saxons.  Quietly  leaving 
their  cainp,  he  joined  his  nobles,  who  were  assembled  in 
Selwood  Forest.  An  army  was  quickly  gotten  together  and 
inarched  against  the  Danes,  meeting  them  at  Ethandune,  in 
Wiltshire  ;  a  battle  ensued,  878  A.D.,  in  which  the  Saxons 
were  completely  victorious.  Alfred  at  once  attacked  the 
camp  of  Guthrum,  and  in  fourteen  days  the  Danish  leader 
was  forced  to  capitulate.  Guthrum  himself,  and  many  of  his 
chiefs,  embraced  the  Christian  faith.  They  were  given  a 
narrow  tract  of  land  lying  between  the  rivers  Thames  and 
Tweed,  which  received  the  name  of  Danelagh.  The  settle- 
ment of  the  Danes  in  England  is  shown  at  the  present  day  by 
many  geographical  names,  such  as  those  ending  in  'by,'  the 
Danish  for  '  town. ' 

For  a  time  England  had  rest  from  foreign  invaders,  and 
her  people  were  able  to  turn  without  distraction  to  their  do- 
mestic affairs.  Alfred  summoned  the  Witenagemot,  or  "  as- 
sembly of  the  wise  men,"  to  assist  him  in  providing  for  the 
welfare  of  the  kingdom.  This  great  national  council  or  par- 
liament was  composed  of  the  higher  clergy  and  the  nobles. 
The  Commons,  who  now  hold  the  reins  of  power,  had  not 
then  attained  sufficient  importance  or  prominence  in  the  State 
to  be  asked  for  advice.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Parliament  not 
only  assisted  in  making  those  laws  which  are  consecrated  with 
the  name  of  Alfred,  but  were  the  judges  of  all  State  criminals 
and  had  the  general  superintendence  of  the  courts  of  justice 
throughout  the  land. 

But  the  peace  was  of  short  duration.  Once  more,  in  890 
A.D.,  the  irrepressible  Danes,  with  a  fleet  of  330  ships,  crossed 
the  German  Ocean,  and  landed  on  the  Kentish  shore.  Their 
leader  was  Hastings,  a  man  of  such  vigor  and  skill,  that,  but 
for  the  precautions  taken  by  King  Alfred,  and  the  general- 
ship he  now  displayed,  all  England  must  speedily  have  be- 
come Danish.  The  Danes  ravaged  the  south  of  the  island  for 
three  years;  Hastings  even  established  a  camp  within  twenty 
miles  of  London.  The  Saxon  king  went  to  reconnoitre  the 
Danish  camp,  and  saw  the  river  covered  with  the  ships  of  the 
enemy.  Summoning  his  men,  he  ordered  them  to  dig  three 


262  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

deep  channels  from  the  Lea  to  the  Thames,  thus  diverting  the 
course  of  the  former  river.  Very  soon  the  Danish  ships  were 
all  aground.  Hastings  and  his  army  fled. 

The  rest  of  Alfred's  reign  was  peace.  He  spent  his  latter 
years  in  carrying  out  plans  for  the  welfare  of  his  people. 
Though  the  victim  of  an  internal  disease  which  left  him  few 
painless  hours  during  twenty-four  years,  his  energies  never 
drooped  through  all  the  changes  of  a  toilsome  life.  For  the 
safety  of  the  country,  he  built  strong  castles  in  advantageous 
positions,  where  the  attack  of  an  enemy  could  most  easily  be 
withstood.  He  was  the  organizer  of  the  militia  system,  and 
divided  all  men  capable  of  bearing  arms  into  three  divisions; 
one  body  garrisoned  the  towns,  while  the  other  two  acted  as 
a  sort  of  reserve,  being  engaged  in  military  duty  and  agricul- 
tural pursuits  by  turns. 

This  great  king  was  untiring  in  his  efforts  to  acquire 
knowledge  and  convey  it  to  his  people.  He  sent  intelligent 
men  to  Russia,  Jerusalem,  and  even,  it  is  said,  to  India,  to 
obtain  geographical  and  other  learning.  His  court  was  the 
home  of  many  distinguished  scholars.  He  is  honored  as  the 
founder  of  Oxford  University,  which  dates  from  886  A.D. 
He  promulgated  a  law  compelling  the  nobles  to  have  their 
children  educated,  and  he  himself  provided  books  for  their 
instruction.  "^Esop's  Fables,"  Bede's  "  Latin  History  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Church  "  and  the  Psalms  were  translated  into 
Saxon  by  this  book-loving  king. 

Bishop  Asser  relates  that  Alfred  measured  the  time  by 
candles,  so  as  not  to  neglect  any  of  his  duties.  These  candles 
were  made  all  of  one  length,  burning  one  inch  in  twenty 
minutes.  He  divided  his  day  into  three  parts, — one  he  devoted 
to  business  of  state;  a  second,  to  religious  exercises  and  the 
pursuit  of  knowledge;  and  a  third,  to  sleep,  meals  and  recre- 
ation. 

Alfred  framed  a  code  of  laws,  in  which  the  chief  enact- 
ments of  Ethelbert  and  OfFa  had  place ;  and  by  the  execution 
of  these  with  stern  impartiality,  crime  became  rare.  Trial 
by  jury  is  traced  to  this  code,  though  its  original  form  had 
little  resemblance  to  the  institution  as  now  known.  The 
execution  of  the  laws  was  vested  in  officers  called  Reeves,  of 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT.  263 

whom  the  chief  in  each  county  was  called  Shire-reeve,  and 
was  the  original  of  our  Sheriff.  The  land  was  divided  into 
counties,  hundreds,  and  tithings  or  tenths,  making  the  admin- 
istration of  justice  the  easier. 

Alfred  died  at  Farringdon,  in  Berkshire,  901  A.D.,  being 
fifty-one  years  of  age.  He  was  buried  in  the  new  Minster, 
which  he  himself  had  founded  in  Winchester,  the  capital  of 
his  kingdom. 

Alfred  the  Great  was  the  best  of  English  kings.  The 
pages  of  history  can  nowhere  produce  a  purer  portion  than 
those  which  record  his  life.  His  remark,  "It  is  just  that  the 
English  should  forever  remain  as  free  as  their  own  thoughts, " 
showed  his  patriotism  and  noble  nature.  He  devoted  his  life 
to  the  good  of  his  subjects,  and  "we  can  justly  bestow  on 
him  the  triple  crown  of  Virtue,  Heroism,  and  Culture." 

Alfred  the  Great,  says  Freeman,  "is  a  singular  instance 
of  a  prince  who  has  become  a  hero  of  romance,  who,  as  such, 
has  had  countless  imaginary  exploits  attributed  to  him,  but 
to  whose  character  romance  has  done  no  more  than  justice, 
and  who  appears  in  exactly  the  same  light  in  history  and  in 
fable.  No  other  man  on  record  has  ever  so  thoroughly  united 
all  the  virtues  both  of  the  ruler  and  of  the  private  man.  In 
no  other  man  on  record  were  so  many  virtues  disfigured  by  so 
little  alloy.  A  saint  without  superstition,  a  scholar  without 
ostentation,  a  warrior  whose  wars  were  all  fought  in  the 
defence  of  his  country,  a  conqueror  whose  laurels  were  never 
stained  by  cruelty,  a  prince  never  cast  down  by  adversity, 
never  lifted  up  to  insolence  in  the  day  of  triumph,  there  is  no 
other  name  in  history  to  compare  with  his." 

ALFRED'S  TRIUMPH  OVER  GUTHRUM. 

Guthrum,  the  leader  of  the  Danes,  had  fixed  his  residence 
at  Gloucester,  and  rewarded  the  services  of  his  veterans  by 
dividing  among  them  the  lands  in  the  neighborhood.  But 
while  this  peaceful  occupation  seemed  to  absorb  his  attention, 
his  mind  was  actively  employed  in  arranging  a  plan  of  war- 
fare which  threatened  to  extinguish  the  last  of  the  Saxon 
governments  in  Britain.  A  winter  campaign  had  hitherto 
been  unknown  in  the  annals  of  Danish  devastation ;  after 


264  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

their  summer  expeditions  the  invaders  had  always  devoted 
the  succeeding  months  to  festivity  and  repose,  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  followers  of  Guthrum  were  as  ignorant  as 
the  Saxons  of  the  real  design  of  their  leader.  On  the  first 
day  of  the  year  878  they  received  an  unexpected  summons  to 
meet  him  on  horseback  at  an  appointed  place ;  on  the  night 
of  the  6th  of  January  they  were  in  possession  of  Chippenharn, 
a  royal  villa  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Avon.  There  is  reason 
to  believe  that  Alfred  was  in  the  place  when  the  alarm  was 
given  ;  it  is  certain  that  he  could  not  be  at  any  great  distance. 
From  Chippenham,  Guthrum  dispersed  his  cavalry  in  dif- 
ferent directions  over  the  neighboring  counties ;  the  Saxons 
were  surprised  by  the  enemy  before  they  had  heard  of  the 
war ;  and  the  king  saw  himself  surrounded  by  the  barbarians, 
without  horses,  and  almost  without  attendants.  At  first  he 
conceived  the  rash  design  of  rushing  on  the  multitude  of  his 
enemies ;  but  his  temerity  was  restrained  by  the  more  con- 
siderate suggestions  of  his  friends ;  and  he  consented  to 
reserve  himself  for  a  less  dangerous  and  more  hopeful  experi- 
ment. To  elude  suspicion  he  dismissed  the  few  thanes  who 
were  still  near  his  person,  and  endeavored  alone  and  on  foot 
to  gain  the  centre  of  Somersetshire.  There  he  found  a  secure 
retreat  in  a  small  island  situated  in  a  morass  formed  by  the 
conflux  of  the  Tone  and  the  Parret,  which  was  afterwards 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  Ethelingey,  or  Prince's  Island. 
Though  the  escape  of  Alfred  had  disappointed  the  hopes 
of  the  Danes,  they  followed  up  their  success  with  indefati- 
gable activity.  The  men  of  Hampshire,  Dorset,  Wilts,  and 
Berkshire,  separated  from  each  other,  ignorant  of  the  fate  of 
their  prince,  and  unprepared  for  any  rational  system  of  de- 
fence, saw  themselves  compelled  to  crouch  beneath  the  storm. 
Those  who  dwelt  near  the  coast  crossed  with  their  families 
and  treasure  to  the  opposite  shores  of  Gaul ;  the  others 
sought  to  mitigate  by  submission  the  ferocity  of  the  invaders, 
and  by  the  surrender  of  a  part  to  preserve  the  remainder  of 
their  property.  One  county  alone,  that  of  Somerset,  is  said 
to  have  continued  faithful  to  the  fortunes  of  Alfred  ;  and  yet 
in  the  county  of  Somerset  he  was  compelled  to  conceal 
himself  at  Ethelingey,  while  the  ealderman  ^Ethelnoth,  with 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT.  265 

a  few  adherents,  wandered  in  the  woods.  By  degrees  the 
secret  of  the  royal  retreat  was  revealed ;  Alfred  was  joined 
by  the  more  trusty  of  his  subjects ;  and  in  their  company 
he  occasionally  issued  from  his  concealment,  intercepted  the 
straggling  parties  of  the  Danes,  and  returned,  loaded  with 
the  spoils,  often  of  the  enemy,  sometimes  (such  was  his  hard 
necessity)  of  his  own  people.  As  his  associates  multiplied, 
these  excursions  were  more  frequent  and  successful ;  and  at 
Easter,  to  facilitate  the  access  to  the  island,  he  ordered  a 
communication  to  be  made  with  the  land  by  a  wooden  bridge, 
of  which  he  secured  the  entrance  by  the  erection  of  a  fort. 

While  the  attention  of  Alfred  was  thus  fixed  on  the  enemy 
who  had  seized  the  eastern  provinces  of  his  kingdom,  he 
was  unconscious  of  the  storm  which  threatened  to  burst  on 
him  from  the  West.  A  brother  of  Guthrum,  probably  the 
sanguinary  Ubbo,  with  three-and-twenty  sail,  had  lately 
ravaged  the  shores  of  South  Wales ;  and,  crossing  to  the 
northern  coast  of  Devonshire,  had  landed  his  troops  in  the 
vicinity  of  Apledore.  It  appears  as  if  the  two  brothers  had 
previously  agreed  to  crush  the  king  between  the  pressure  of 
their  respective  armies.  Alarmed  at  this  new  debarkation, 
Odun,  the  ealderman,  with  several  thanes,  fled  for  security  to 
the  castle  of  Kynwith.  It  had  no  other  fortification  than  a 
loose  wall  erected  after  the  manner  of  the  Britons ;  but  its 
position  on  the  summit  of  the  lofty  rock  rendered  it  impreg- 
nable. The  Danish  leader  was  too  wary  to  hazard  an  assault ; 
and  calmly  pitched  his  tent  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain, 
in  the  confident  expectation  that  the  want  of  water  would 
force  the  garrison  to  surrender.  But  Odun,  gathering  cour- 
age from  despair,  silently  left  his  entrenchments  at  the  dawn 
of  morning,  burst  into  the  enemy's  camp,  slew  the  Danish 
chief  with  twelve  hundred  of  his  followers,  and  drove  the 
remainder  to  their  fleet.  The  bravery  of  the  Saxons  was 
rewarded  with  the  plunder  of  Wales  ;  and  among  the  trophies 
of  their  victory  was  the  Reafan,  the  mysterious  Standard  of 
the  Raven,  woven  in  one  noon-tide  by  the  hands  of  the  three 
daughters  of  Ragnar.  The  superstition  of  the  Danes  was 
accustomed  to  observe  the  bird  as  they  marched  to  battle. 
If  it  appeared  to  flap  its  wings,  it  was  a  sure  omen  of  victory ; 


266  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

if  it  hung  motionless  in  the  air,  they  anticipated  nothing  but 
defeat. 

The  news  of  this  success  infused  courage  into  the  hearts 
of  the  most  pusillanimous.  Alfred  watched  the  reviving 
spirit  of  his  people,  and  by  trusty  messengers  invited  them  to 
meet  him  in  the  seventh  week  after  Easter  at  the  stone  of 
Egbert,  in  the  eastern  extremity  of  Selwood  forest.  On  the 
appointed  day  the  men  of  Hampshire,  Wiltshire,  and  Somer- 
set cheerfully  obeyed  the  summons.  At  the  appearance  of 
Alfred  they  hailed  the  avenger  of  their  country ;  the  wood 
echoed  their  acclamations ;  and  every  heart  beat  with  the 
confidence  of  victory.  But  the  place  was  too  confined  to 
receive  the  multitudes  that  hastened  to  the  royal  standard  ; 
and  the  next  morning  the  camp  was  removed  to  Icglea,  a 
spacious  plain  lying  on  the  skirts  of  the  wood,  and  covered 
by  marshes  in  its  front.  The  day  was  spent  in  making  prep- 
arations for  the  conflict,  and  in  assigning  their  places  to  the 
volunteers  that  hourly  arrived  ;  at  the  dawn  of  the  next  morn- 
ing Alfred  marshaled  his  forces,  and  occupied  the  summit  of 
Ethandune,  a  neighboring  and  lofty  eminence. 

In  the  meanwhile  Guthrum  had  not  been  an  idle  spectator 
of  the  motions  of  his  adversary.  He  had  recalled  his  scat- 
tered detachments,  and  was  advancing  with  hasty  steps  to 
chastise  the  insolence  of  the  insurgents.  As  the  armies  met, 
they  vociferated  shouts  of  mutual  defiance  ;  and  after  the  dis- 
charge of  their  missive  weapons,  rushed  to  a  closer  and  more 
sanguinary  combat.  The  shock  of  the  two  nations,  the  efforts 
of  their  leaders,  the  fluctuations  of  victory,  and  the  alternate 
hopes  and  fears  of  the  contending  armies,  must  be  left  to  the 
imagination  of  the  reader.  The  Danes  displayed  a  courage 
worthy  of  their  former  renown  and  their  repeated  conquests. 
The  Saxons  were  stimulated  by  every  motive  that  could  influ- 
ence the  heart  of  man.  Shame,  revenge,  the  dread  of  subju- 
gation, and  the  hope  of  independence,  impelled  them  forward ; 
their  perseverance  bore  down  all  opposition ;  and  the  North- 
men, after  a  most  obstinate  but  unavailing  resistance,  fled  in 
crowds  to  their  camp.  The  pursuit  was  not  less  murderous 
than  the  engagement ;  the  Saxons  immolated  to  their  resent- 
ment every  fugitive  who  fell  into  their  hands.  Immediately, 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT.  267 

by  the  king's  orders,  lines  were  drawn  round  the  encamp- 
ment ;  and  the  escape  of  the  survivors  was  rendered  imprac- 
ticable by  the  vigilance  and  the  multitude  of  their  enemies. 
Famine  and  despair  subdued  the  obstinacy  of  Guthrum,  who 
on  the  fourteenth  day  offered  to  capitulate.  The  terms  imposed 
by  the  conqueror  were  :  that  the  King  and  principal  chieftains 
should  embrace  Christianity  ;  that  they  should  entirely  evac- 
uate his  dominions  ;  and  that  they  should  bind  themselves  to 
the  fulfilment  of  the  treaty  by  the  surrender  of  hostages,  and  by 
their  oaths.  After  a  few  weeks  Guthrum,  with  thirty  of  his 
officers,  was  baptized  at  Aulre,  near  Athelney.  He  took  the  sur- 
name of  Athelstan,  and  Alfred  was  his  sponsor.  After  the  cere- 
mony both  princes  removed  Wedmore,  where  on  the  eighth 
day  Guthrum  put  off  the  white  robe  and  chrismal  fillet,  and 
on  the  twelfth  bade  adieu  to  his  adopted  father,  whose  gen- 
erosity he  had  now  learned  to  admire  as  much  as  he  had  before 
respected  his  valor. — J.  LINGARD. 


FRANCIS  DRAKE 


SIR  FRANCIS  DRAKE,  the  first  Eng- 
lish circumnavigator  of  the  globe,  was 
born  in  1545,  at  Crowndale,  near  Tavi- 
stock,  Devonshire,  England.  His  pa- 
rentage is  obscure,  yet  we  are  told 
that,  by  just  descent  and  prerogative 
of  birth,  he  had  the  right  to  bear  the 
arms  of  his  name  and  family.  His 
father,  Robert,  was  probably  the  third 
son  of  John  Drake,  of  Otterton,  and  of 
his  wife,  Agnes  Kelloway.  Drake's 

inclinations  were  for  a  sailor's  life,  and  in  1565-6  he  was 
engaged  in  one  or  two  voyages  to  Guinea  and  the  Spanish 
Main,  under  Captain  John  Lovell. 

In  1567,  in  a  squadron  fitted  out  by  Captain  Hawkins,  a 
near  relation,  Drake  commanded  the  "Judith."  She  was 
destroyed  by  the  Spaniards.  On  his  return  to  England,  he 
was  sent  up  to  London  to  lay  before  Sir  William  Cecil  all  the 
particulars.  Thus  Drake  was  for  the  first  time  brought  to 
the  notice  of  this  great  minister.  In  the  years  1570-71  he 
made  two  voyages  to  the  West  Indies.  In  the  second  trip  he 
sailed  with  two  ships  ;  the  largest  of  which  was  the  "  Pascha," 
of  seventy  tons  burthen,  with  a  crew  of  forty-seven  men ;  the 
smaller,  the  "Swanne,"  was  of  twenty-five  tons  burthen,  with 
twenty-six  men.  One-third  of  these  died  on  the  voyage.  He 
attacked  Nombre  de  Dios,  and  several  other  towns  on  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien ;  captured  or  destroyed  several  Spanish 
vessels  which  he  found  on  the  coast ;  penetrated  inland,  and 
plundered  more  than  one  train  of  mules,  bringing  the  treasures 
of  the  Mexican  mines  to  the  coast  for  shipment  to  the  mother 
country. 
268 


• 


SIR   FRANCIS   DRAKE.  269 

Drake  returned  to  England  determined  to  organize  a  fresh 
expedition  with  more  ambitious  designs.  From  a  high  tree, 
which  he  had  climbed  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  he  had 
seen  the  Pacific,  and  had  made  a  vow  to  sail  upon  its  waters. 
In  1577  he  again  left  Plymouth  with  five  ships,  the  largest  of 
which,  the  "Pelican,"  was  under  his  own  command.  The 
united  crews  numbered  but  164  men.  They  arrived  on  the 
coast  of  Patagonia  June  aoth,  1578.  Here  Thomas  Doughty, 
second  in  command,  was  accused  of  plotting  against  Drake, 
tried,  and  beheaded.  Drake  now  coasted  down  to  the  Straits 
of  Magelhaen;  but,  a  storm  arising,  his  squadron  was  shattered, 
and  he  was  left  to  prosecute  his  enterprise  with  the  u  Pelican" 
alone.  He  changed  his  vessel's  name  to  that  of  the  "  Golden 
Hind, "  as  an  omen  of  what  she  was  to  prove  to  him.  He 
threaded  his  way  through  the  Straits  of  Magelhaen,  and 
reached  the  Pacific.  Drake  now  proceeded  to  attack  the  most 
tempting  Spanish  towns  on  the  Peruvian  coast.  He  reaped 
a  golden  harvest,  even  entering  the  port  of  Callao,  and  plun- 
dering no  less  than  seventeen  galleons.  He  landed  in  Cali- 
fornia, taking  possession  of  it  in  the  name  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 
He  now  quitted  the  American  coast,  and  in  two  months 
reached  the  Philippine  Islands.  After  being  nearly  wrecked 
on  the  coast  of  Celebes,  he  passed  around  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  on  his  homeward  voyage.  He  reached  Plymouth  in 
Sept. ,  1 580,  after  a  voyage  of  nearly  three  years'  duration. 

Drake  sailed  around  to  the  Thames,  where  Queen  Eliza- 
beth did  him  the  honor  of  dining  on  board  his  ship.  She  also 
conferred  on  him  the  honor  of  knighthood,  Drake  being  the 
first  Englishman  who  had  sailed  round  the  world.  A  chair 
was  made  out  of  the  "Golden  Hind,"  which  still  may  be 
seen  in  the  Bodleian  Library  at  the  University  of  Oxford. 

Nearly  five  years  elapsed  before  the  great  captain  again  put 
to  sea.  In  1585  he  once  more  crossed  the  Atlantic,  to  renew 
his  attacks  on  the  Spaniards.  His  flag-ship  was  the  ' '  Eliza- 
beth, ' '  a  vessel  of  900  tons'  burthen.  He  overran  St.  Domingo, 
stormed  and  sacked  Carthagena  and  St.  Jago,  near  Cape  Verd. 
Drake,  on  his  return  to  England,  expressed  himself  as  "eager 
to  singe  the  King  of  Spain's  beard."  He  set  sail  for  Cadiz  in 
1587  with  thirty  sail.  Entering  Cadiz,  he  destroyed  10,000 


270  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

tons  of  shipping,  transferring  their  valuable  cargoes  to  his 
own  ships.  At  Lisbon  he  burnt  100  vessels  more;  but  later, 
in  1589,  Sir  Francis  and  Sir  John  Norris  failed  in  an  expedi- 
tion, the  object  of  which  was  to  deliver  Portugal  from  the 
dominion  of  Spain. 

On  the  1 2th  of  July,  1 588,  the  great  Spanish  Armada  was 
sighted  off  the  Lizard  Point.  At  the  time  that  word  of  their 
arrival  was  brought,  the  Lord  High  Admiral  and  the  other 
admirals  and  captains  were  playing  bowls  on  Plymouth  Hoe. 
Lord  Howard  was  for  at  once  putting  to  sea  and  meeting  the 
enemy.  u  There's  plenty  of  time  to  win  this  game  and  thrash 
the  Spaniards  too,"  said  Drake.  The  English  soon  put  to 
sea  to  meet  the  Armada.  Drake  was  second  in  command  of 
the  ' '  Revenge, ' '  a  vessel  of  500  tons  and  carrying  240  guns. 
On  the  2ist  of  July  the  fleets  sighted  each  other  west  of 
Plymouth.  The  Armada  consisted  of  a  hundred  and  thirty- 
six  ships,  thus  doubling  in  number  the  English  fleet.  After 
a  week's  fighting  the  Spanish  fleet  was  scattered  and  destroyed 
by  means  of  fire-ships  sent  among  them  by  the  English. 

Elizabeth  now  determined  once  more  to  invade  the  terri- 
tory of  the  King  of  Spain  ;  fitting  out  30  vessels,  with  2, 500 
men  aboard,  Hawkins  and  Drake  led  the  expedition.  It  failed 
entirely.  Hawkins  died  of  fever  off  Porto  Rico,  while  Drake 
passed  on  to  the  Isthmus  to  attack  Panama.  He  was  com- 
pelled to  retreat,  and  on  January  28,  1596,  died  of  fever  on 
board  his  flagship.  A  few  days  later  his  body,  enclosed  in  a 
lead  coffin,  was  committed  to  the  deep. 

Sir  Francis  Drake,  though  twice  married,  left  no  children. 
In  stature  he  was  low;  but  he  was  broad-chested  and  possessed 
wonderfully  strong  limbs.  Had  Drake  been  living  at  this 
time,  he,  with  many  of  his  friends,  would  have  been  deemed 
pirates;  but  things  were  different  then,  and  the  Spaniards 
themselves  were  worse  than  Sir  Francis.  He  was  a  thorough 
sailor,  a  skillful  commander,  kind  and  considerate  to  his 
sailors  and  careful  of  their  lives  and  interests.  Eloquent  by 
nature,  restless  and  full  of  energy,  a  man  to  be  feared  by  an 
enemy,  Drake  carried  the  flag  of  England  across  seas  where  it 
never  had  before  waved. 


SIR   FRANCIS  DRAKE.  271 

DRAKE  AT  SAN  FRANCISCO. 

Sir  Francis  Drake,  having  set  sail  from  England,  for  the 
purpose  of  examining  the  west  coast  of  America  and  circum- 
navigating the  globe,  reached  Aguapulco,  or  Acapulco,  on 
the  southwestern  coast  of  Mexico,  on  April  I5th,  1577.  He 
had  coasted  down  the  eastern  side  of  South  America  ;  sailed 
through  the  Straits  of  Magellan ;  been  driven,  by  unfavorable 
winds,  south  of  Cape  Horn,  the  extreme  point  of  South 
America,  and  had  coursed  his  way  up  the  western  coast  as  far 
as  Acapulco. 

Leaving  this  port,  Drake  penetrated  farther  north  until 
the  cold  became  so  severe,  and  gave  the  men  so  much  annoy- 
ance, especially  in  freezing  the  ropes  and  hindering  the 
management  of  the  vessel,  as  to  occasion  great  complaints. 
He  sailed  as  far  as  the  48th  degree  of  latitude,  near  Van- 
couver's Island,  where  he  found  a  harbor.  But  dense  fogs, 
sudden  flaws  and  violent  tempests,  prevented  him  from 
tarrying  there  very  long.  His  men  being  strongly  opposed 
to  proceeding  farther  north,  and  the  wind  being  against  him, 
he  concluded  to  run  down  the  coast  to  the  neighborhood  of 
the  38th  degree  of  north  latitude,  where  he  found  another 
harbor,  which,  there  can  be  but  little  doubt,  was  San 
Francisco.  The  country  was  inhabited,  and  many  of  the 
natives  had  erected  their  huts  close  by  the  water. 

Approaching  this  harbor,  they  saw  a  single  native  coming 
off  in- a  canoe,  who,  when  he  came  within  speaking  dis- 
tance, made  a  long  address  to  them,  and  then,  with  marks  of 
great  reverence,  returned  to  the  shore.  What  the  address 
was,  whether  it  was  made  up  of  threats,  information,  or  offers 
of  submission,  they  knew  not,  as  they  were  unacquainted 
with  the  language.  The  vessel  having  sprung  aleak,  it  was 
necessary  to  lighten  her,  in  order  to  repair  her.  Tents  were 
raised  on  the  shore  for  the  men,  and  a  rude  fort  constructed 
for  the  protection  of  the  stores  and  cargo.  The  natives  looked 
on  from  a  distance,  not  knowing  what  these  things  meant. 
By  and  by  they  came  down  armed,  in  great  numbers,  but 
gave  no  evidence  of  hostile  design.  They  were  ordered,  by 
signs,  to  lay  down  their  bows  and  arrows,  and  at  once  com- 

s» 


272  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

plied.  The  admiral,  in  order  to  secure  their  good  will,  gave 
them  a  number  of  presents  of  European  manufacture.  In 
return,  they  presented  him  with  articles  of  their  own  handi- 
work, and  also  some  feathers  and  skins.  At  night  they 
withdrew  to  their  own  village,  about  a  mile  distant.  They 
there  made  demonstrations  of  a  most  noisy  character ;  the 
women,  especially,  shrieked  in  a  terrific  manner,  as  if  they 
expected  to  be  led  to  captivity  or  death.  For  two  days  after 
this  none  of  them  came  near  the  English;  but  on  the  third 
day  a  company  presented  themselves,  much  more  numerous 
than  those  who  first  appeared.  One  of  them,  who  was  prob- 
ably a  chief  speaker  among  them,  delivered  a  long  address. 
When  he  had  finished,  the  whole  company  laid  down  their 
weapons,  and  came  to  the  English  camp.  Judging  from  their 
conduct,  it  would  seem  that  the  women  had  no  sympathy 
with  the  proceedings  of  the  men.  They  made  doleful  lamen- 
tations, tore  the  flesh  from  their  cheeks,  and  appeared  to  be 
overwhelmed  with  sorrow.  Perhaps,  however,  this  was  their 
method  of  giving  more  intense  expression  to  the  same  feel- 
ings as  those  of  the  men. 

The  English  suspected  that  they  were  about  to  offer  a  sac- 
rifice. Whereupon  the  admiral,  with  his  company,  engaged 
in  prayer  and  in  the  reading  of  the  'Bible  to  them,  to  which 
the  natives  gave  good  attention,  and  seemed  much  impressed 
by  it ;  but  when  they  came  to  the  English  they  restored  the 
gifts  which  they  had  previously  received  from  them.  Pres- 
ently the  King  himself  made  his  appearance,  accompanied  by 
many  of  his  followers,  of  stately  and  warlike  appearance,  and 
painted  in  various  colors.  His  Indian  majesty  was  preceded 
by  two  ambassadors,  who  came  to  announce  his  approach. 
Their  address  continued  about  an  hour,  at  the  end  of  which 
the  King  advanced,  surrounded  with  all  the  trappings  of  roy- 
alty at  his  command.  During  his  stately  march  to  the  Eng- 
lish camp,  the  followers  who  composed  his  train  c '  cried  con- 
tinually, after  a  singing  manner,  with  a  lusty  courage.  As 
they  drew  nearer  and  nearer,  so  did  they  more  and  more  strive 
to  behave  themselves  with  a  certain  comeliness  and  gravity 
in  all  their  actions." 

So  friendly  was  the  manner  of  their  approach  that  Drake, 


SIR   FRANCIS   DRAKE.  273 

being  disarmed  of  all  suspicions,  gave  orders  for  their  admis- 
sion within  the  enclosure  of  the  camp  without  interruption. 
They  entered  the  fort  with  songs  and  dances.  During  the 
continuance  of  the  festivity,  the  King  approached  the  admiral 
with  singing,  and,  with  the  consent  of  all  the  rest,  placed  upon 
his  head,  with  great  reverence,  an  ornamented  feather  cap,  as 
if  it  were  an  act  of  coronation,  threw  over  his  neck  many 
chains  belonging  to  his  followers,  presented  many  other 
things  as  gifts,  and  then  greeted  him  with  the  salutation, 
Hioh,  which  the  English  supposed  was  either  his  own  name 
or  else  the  Indian  title  for  King.  They  then  added  what  was 
supposed  to  be  a  song  and  dance  of  triumph.  The  women, 
not  satisfied  with  songs  and  dances,  tore  their  faces  and  breasts 
until  they  were  horribly  disfigured  with  wounds  and  blood. 

The  ceremony  of  coronation  which  we  have  described  was 
interpreted  by  Drake  as  a  formal  and  official  acknowledgment 
of  allegiance  to  him,  by  which  the  King  resigned  himself,  his 
people,  and  all  their  lands,  into  his  hands,  and  bound  them- 
selves and  all  their  posterity  to  become  his  subjects.  In  reply, 
Drake  gave  them  to  understand,  as  well  as  he  was  able,  that 
he  accepted  them  and  their  lands  in  the  name  and  for  the  use 
of  her  Majesty,  Queen  Elizabeth  of  England.  It  is  very  un- 
certain whether  the  interpretation  of  the  admiral  was  correct. 
The  ceremony  of  the  Indians  was  undoubtedly  an  expression 
of  great  respect  and  reverence  for  the  English ;  but  it  seems 
quite  improbable  that  they  should  voluntarily  have  offered 
themselves,  their  lands,  and  their  posterity  to  these  strangers, 
without  receiving,  or  even  asking,  any  equivalent.  Such  an 
act  is  not  in  harmony  with  Indian  character. 

These  people  are  described  as  teachable,  confiding,  and 
amiable,  destitute  of  duplicity,  treachery,  and  revenge. 
Their  bows  and  arrows  were  comparatively  harmless,  being 
weak,  and  more  appropriate  for  children  than  adults.  Yet 
the  men  were  unusually  strong.  A  burden,  which  two  or 
three  of  the  English  found  it  difficult  to  lift,  one  of  them 
would  carry  over  a  rough  road,  up  hill  and  down,  a  long  dis- 
tance. It  was  observed  also  that  the  women  were  very 
obedient  and  serviceable  to  those  whom  they  had  married. 

Before  the  admiral  left  this  place  he  erected  a  post,  or 
18 


274  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

column,  on  which  he  fastened  a  brass  plate,  containing  the 
date  of  his  arrival,  the  voluntary  proffer  of  the  country  by  the 
King  and  people  to  him,  with  his  own  name  underneath. 
He  also  had  skillfully  set  in  the  plate  a  current  English  six- 
pence, on  which  were  impressed  the  picture  and  coat-of-arms 
of  her  majesty.  In  this  manner  he  left  evidence  of  having 
taken  formal  possession  of  the  place  in  the  name  of  Queen 
Elizabeth  of  England. 

As  a  token  of  respect  to  his  own  country,  and  also  because 
he  had  observed  on  different  parts  of  this  coast  white  cliffs 
similar  t  those  on  the  coast  of  England,  he  called  all  the  land 
he  had  here  seen  New  Albion. 

After  remaining  in  this  port  thirty-six  days,  repairing  his 
ships  and  cultivating  friendly  relations  with  the  natives, 
Drake  again  put  to  sea.  The  Indians  appear  to  have  parted 
with  him  with  regret,  and  to  have  wished  for  his  speedy 
return.  They  ran  upon  the  hills,  kindled  fires  and  kept  them 
burning  all  the  time  that  he  was  in  sight — J.  BANVARD. 
C-P-- — 

DRAKE  AT  ST.  AUGUSTINE. 

At  a  subsequent  period,  Drake  again  visited  this  country, 
approaching  it  from  the  West  Indies  on  the  eastern  side.  On 
the  28th  of  May,  1586,  he  discovered  on  the  coast  of  Florida 
a  rude  scaffold,  supported  on  four  poles,  having  the  appear- 
ance of  an  observatory.  As  no  one  on  board  could  give  any 
account  of  its  history,  he  manned  his  pinnaces  and  went  on 
shore  to  discover  who  held  it  Passing  up  the  River  St. 
Augustine,  he  came  to  a  fort  newly  erected  by  the  Spaniards, 
but  not  quite  finished,  called  the  Fort  of  St  Juan  de  Pinos. 
When  the  Spaniards  saw  the  English  approaching,  they 
abandoned  the  work  and  fled  as  rapidly  as  possible  to  the  town 
of  St  Augustine,  which  contained  a  garrison  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  men.  The  next  day  the  English  landed,  and 
marched  to  the  fort  which  protected  the  town,  for  the  purpose 
of  storming  it  As  they  approached,  they  could  discover  no 
one  there  to  defend  it.  Perhaps  the  garrison  are  concealed,  in 
order  to  throw  the  English  off  their  guard.  Perhaps  they  are 
in  ambush,  and  will  suddenly  fire  upon  their  flank  or  rear. 
The  storming  party  advance  very  cautiously.  Not  a  sword, 


SIR   FRANCIS   DRAKE.  275 

musket,  nor  feather  can  they  see.  They  enter  the  fort  ;  but 
no  one  is  there.  They  have  all  fled.  On  a  platform,  con- 
structed of  large  pine  trees,  were  fourteen  pieces  of  large  brass 
ordnance.  But  the  Spaniards  tested  the  calibre  of  none  of 
them.  They  fled  without  firing  a  single  ball.  Upon  exam- 
ining the  place,  the  attacking  party  discovered  a  Frenchman, 
a  fifer,  who  had  been  held  by  the  Spaniards  a  prisoner.  He 
informed  the  English  that  the  Spaniards  fled  in  such  haste  as 
to  leave  behind  them  a  chest  containing  two  thousand  pounds 
in  money. 

The  English  soldiers  now  pressed  on  to  the  town.  The 
Spaniards  mustered  sufficient  courage  to  fire  a  few  shots  at 
them,  and  then,  having  no  blood  to  spare,  they  'ran  away. 
Anthony  Powell,  a  sergeant-major,  leaping  upon  one  of  the 
horses  they  had  left  behind,  pursued  them  over  ground  which 
was  covered  with  long  grass.  His  rashness  led  him  too  far  in 
advance  of  his  company.  A  Spaniard  who  had  concealed 
himself  in  the  grass  fired  at  him,  and  shot  him  through  the 
head,  and  then  pierced  his  body  with  many  wounds.  The 
Governor  of  the  place  had  retired  to  St.  Matheo,  leaving  not 
a  single  inhabitant  in  the  town.  Drake  noticed  that  St. 
Augustine  appeared  to  be  in  a  prosperous  condition.  Among 
other  edifices  it  contained  a  town-house  and  church,  and  was 
ornamented  with  a  number  of  gardens  ;  but  all  these  pleasant 
things  were  burnt  and  laid  waste  by  the  English,  in  revenge 
for  the  death  of  Major  Powell. 

It  was  Drake's  intention  to  have  visited  another  Spanish 
settlement,  about  thirty  miles  farther  on,  called  St.  Helena, 
and  to  have  destroyed  that  also  ;  but  the  weather  being  un- 
favorable, and  the  shoals  dangerous,  it  was  considered  advis- 
able to  relinquish  the  attempt,  especially  as  he  had  no  pilot 
who  was  acquainted  with  the  channel. 

Abandoning  this  design,  Sir  Francis  Drake  proceeded 
farther  north,  in  search  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  colony,  which 
had  recently  been  planted  in  Virginia.  He  had  received 
orders  from  her  Majesty,  the  Queen,  before  his  departure  from 
England,  to  extend  to  this  infant  settlement  every  encourage- 
ment and  assistance  in  his  power.  He  found  the  shore 
inaccessible  on  account  of  shoals,  and  was  therefore  obliged 


276 


HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 


to  anchor  in  an  open,  exposed  situation,  two  miles  from  land. 
To  Mr.  Ralph  Lane,  Governor  of  the  colony,  who  was  then 
at  his  fort  in  Roanoke,  he  sent  an  offer  of  assistance  and 
supplies.  The  Governor,  with  some  of  his  men,  visited  the 
admiral,  and  requested  him  to  furnish  the  colony  with  more 
men  and  provisions,  and  also  a  small  vessel  and  boats,  so  that, 
if  an  extremity  should  occur,  they  might  be  able  to  return  to 
England.  In  compliance  with  their  request,  the  admiral 
immediately  fitted  up  one  of  his  ships  and  bountifully  supplied 
it  with  all  manner  of  stores  for  their  use.  A  storm  now  arose, 
which  drove  that  ship  and  some  others  out  to  sea,  and  Drake 
did  not  see  them  again  till  his  return  home.  He  now  pro- 
posed to  furnish  another  of  his  ships  for  their  use.  But  the 
Governor  and  his  colonists,  having  passed  through  many 
hardships,  had  become  quite  disheartened.  And  now  that 
this  recent  calamity  had  been  visited  upon  them,  and  the 
promised  stores  from  England  had  failed,  they  construed  it 
into  an  expression  of  the  disapprobation  of  Providence  of  their 
design  to  establish  a  colony.  After  mutual  consultation 
among  themselves,  they  requested  Sir  Francis  Drake  to  re- 
move them  from  the  coast  and  take  them  home.  When  they 
landed  in  Virginia,  their  number  was  one  hundred  and  eight ; 
it  was  reduced  to  one  hundred  and  three,  all  of  whom  now 
embarked  in  the  fleet  of  the  admiral  for  England. — J.  BAN- 
YARD. 


FATHER  MARQUETTE. 


,  OR  FATHER  MARQUETTE,  the  Jesuit 
missionary,  is  claimed  the  honor  of  the 
rediscovery  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
more  than  a  century  after  its  original 
discovery  by  the  Spanish  adventurer, 
Ferdinand  De  Soto,  in  1541.  Marquette 
was  one  of  that  self-sacrificing  band 
who  devoted  their  lives  and  energies  to 
bringing  within  the  pale  of  Christian 

civilization  the  hordes  of  barbarians  who  occupied  the  wilder- 
nesses of  America. 

James  Marquette  was  descended  from  an  ancient  French 
family,  and  was  born  at  Laon,  France,  in  1637.  In  his  seven- 
teenth year  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  after  com- 
pleting his  studies  he  proceeded  of  his  own  choice  to  Canada. 
Landing  at  Quebec  in  September,  1666,  he  gpent  eighteen 
months  at  Three  Rivers  in  acquiring  the  Indian  languages.  In 
April,  1668,  he  was  placed  at  the  Ottawa  Mission,  which 
extended  west  from  the  Ottawa  River  to  Lake  Huron.  Jour- 
neying through  that  splendid  scenery,  he  pushed  on  to  Sault 
Sainte  Marie,  where  he  soon  built  a  rude  church. 

In  1669  he  was  appointed  to  a  more  remote  mission;  but, 
on  account  of  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  among  the  tribes, 
removed  to  Mackinaw,  near  Lake  Huron,  where  he  founded 
the  Mission  of  St.  Ignatius.  He  desired,  however,  a  wider 
field;  and  his  associate,  Father  Alloiiez,  during  his  visits  to 
some  tribes,  had  heard  of  the  great  river,  whose  Indian  name 
he  reported  to  be  "  Messippi. ' '  Marquette  was  chosen  to 
accompany  Louis  Joliet,  who  had  been  commissioned  by  the 
Governor-General  of  Canada  to  search  for  this  great  river. 

277 


278  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

From  the  Illinois  Indians  Marquette  received  much  informa- 
tion, and  drew  up  a  rude  map  of  the  river. 

On  the  1 7th  of  May,  1673,  the  expedition  of  discovery 
embarked  in  two  canoes  at  Mackinaw  and  proceeded  to  Green 
Bay,  through  the  Fox  River  to  the  Wisconsin,  and  thence  by 
portage  to  the  Mississippi.  The  story  of  this  voyage,  narrated 
by  Marquette  himself,  entitled  "Voyage  et  decouverte  de 
quelques  pays  et  nations  de  1'Amerique  Septentrionale, "  is 
remarkable  "  for  charm  of  style  as  well  as  close  observation 
and  fine  descriptive  ability. ' '  He  had  also  the  scientific  capa- 
city to  note  all  the  natural  features  of  the  river,  and  he  was 
the  first  to  give  the  true  theory  of  the  lake  tides. 

They  descended  the  river  to  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas, 
and  proved  by  experience  the  navigability  of  the  Mississippi. 
In  returning  they  ascended  the  Illinois  River,  proceeded 
thence  across  to  Green  Bay,  where  they  arrived  in  September, 
1674.  The  hardships  that  Marquette  endured  broke  his  con- 
stitution; but  he  sent  to  his  superior,  early  in  1675,  the  journal 
of  his  voyage.  At  the  same  time  Father  Dablon,  one  of  the 
missionaries,  sent  a  proposal  to  connect  Lake  Michigan  with 
the  Illinois  River.  Being  commanded  to  establish  a  mission 
on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Illinois  River  at  the  settlement  of 
Kaskaskia,  Marquette,  though  just  arising  from  his  bed  of 
long  sickness  at  Green  Bay,  started  on  the  23d  of  October, 
1674,  and,  overtaking  a  party  of  Illinois  Indians,  he  jour- 
neyed with  them  until  reaching  the  Chicago  River.  Here  he 
was  too  exhausted  to  proceed  farther.  The  Indians  continued 
on  to  their  village;  "but  two  Frenchmen  remained  with  him 
and  built  a  log  hut,  the  first  human  dwelling  on  the  site  of 
what  is  now  the  city  of  Chicago."  After  remaining  here 
perforce  of  his  feebleness  for  three  months,  he  set  out  for  Kas- 
kaskia, where  he  arrived  on  the  8th  of  April,  1675. 

Here  he  proceeded  ' '  from  cabin  to  cabin,  explaining  the 
principles  of  his  religion,  and  then  convened  the  whole  peo- 
ple," and  "preached  to  more  than  2000  men  and  a  still  larger 
number  of  women."  He  told  the  Indians  that  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  them  on  account  of  his  ailment,  and  then  he  set  out 
for  Mackinaw,  escorted  by  them  for  the  distance  of  thirty 
leagues.  He  had  hoped  to  reach  Mackinaw,  there  to  lay  his 


FATHER   MARQUETTE.  279 

wearied  head  among  his  proselytes  and  to  die  at  the  mission 
he  had  founded;  but  fate  ordained  otherwise,  for  on  the  way 
his  disease  increased  with  great  virulence,  and  feeling  his  hour 
had  come,  he  hailed  death  with  ecstasy.  He  had  become  so 
weak  that  he  had  to  be  lifted  in  and  out  of  his  canoe.  On  the 
eve  (May  17,  1675)  of  his  death  he  told  his  companions  he 
would  die  the  next  day.  He  was  carried  ashore,  and  a  poor 
bark  cabin  raised  to  shelter  him  for  his  few  remaining  hours. 
The  river  on  whose  banks  Father  Marquette  died  is  in  the 
west  of  Michigan.  It  long  bore  his  name,  which  has  now 
been  given  to  a  large  neighboring  stream.  His  remains  were 
transferred  to  Point  Saint  Ignatius,  Michigan,  and  their  rest- 
ing place  was  afterwards  forgotten,  but  was  discovered  in  1877. 

MARQUETTE'S  VOYAGE  DOWN  THE  MISSISSIPPI. 

Father  Marquette  and  Francis  Joliet  were  appointed  by 
Governor  Frontenac  to  have  charge  of  the  perilous  expedition. 
Marquette  was  especially  adapted  to  this  service  on  account 
of  his  bravery,  discretion,  religious  zeal  for  the  conversion  of 
the  natives,  and  his  acquaintance  with  several  Indian  dialects 
which  were  widely  spoken  by  the  natives.  Five  others  were 
associated  with  them.  From  Father  Marquette' s  account  of 
the  expedition  we  have  full  knowledge  of  their  adventures. 

On  the  1 3th  of  May,  1673,  these  seven  individuals  embarked 
in  two  canoes  on  their  dangerous  expedition.  The  first  tribe 
of  Indians  which  they  reached  were  called  Wild  Rice,  because 
their  country  produced  this  grain  in  great  abundance.  Father 
Marquette  informed  them  of  his  design  to  visit  the  tribes  of 
the  remote  west  and  south,  and  make  known  to  them  the 
knowledge  of  the  true  God.  These  sons  of  the  forest,  being 
favorably  impressed  with  the  good  father's  appearance  and 
doctrines,  were  unwilling  that  he  should  expose  himself  to 
the  perils  of  so  hazardous  an  enterprise.  They  earnestly 
entreated  him  to  abandon  it.  They  pictured  it  as  full  of 
terrors.  They  represented  the  navigation  of  the  river  as 
extremely  dangerous,  the  Indians  as  cruel,  and  the  climate  as 
insufferably  hot.  They,  moreover,  said  that  the  water  of  the 
river  teemed  with  gigantic  monsters,  with  which  it  would  be 
useless  to  contend.  Their  tales  of  terror  were  sufficient  to 


280  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

have  chilled  the  ardor  of  any  other  than  the  bravest  hearts. 
But  they  produced  no  effect  upon  Marquette.  Although  he 
expressed  his  gratitude  for  the  affectionate  interest  which  they 
manifested  in  his  welfare,  he  informed  them  he  had  no  fear 
of  the  aquatic  monsters  of  the  river,  and  that  he  should  use 
extra  vigilance  to  guard  against  surprise  from  the  Indians. 
True  to  his  design,  Marquette  gave  these  Wild  Rice  Indians 
religious  instruction  and  offered  for  them  his  prayers.  We 
next  find  him  at  the  Bay  of  Puans,  on  the  northwestern  side 
of  I/ake  Michigan.  Its  present  name  is  Green  Bay.  As  in 
the  Indian  language  its  name  signified  Salt  Bay,  our  adventur- 
ers were  induced  to  make  some  examination  of  the  place,  to 
ascertain  if  any  salt  springs  existed  in  the  neighborhood  ;  but 
none  were  found. 

Ascending  a  river  which  emptied  into  the  bay,  and  which 
is  now  known  as  Fox  River,  they  approached  a  village,  beau- 
tifully situated  on  a  hill,  from  which  an  extensive  view  was 
had  of  a  landscape  which,  as  it  stretched  away  in  every  direc- 
tion, presented  to  the  beholder,  in  picturesque  combination, 
the  gorgeousness  of  the  many-flowered  prairie,  with  groves  of 
trees  scattered  over  it,  like  islands  in  a  lake,  and  a  dense  forest 
skirting  the  horizon,  as  if  it  were  the  green  bank  by  which 
the  waters  of  this  golden  lake  were  kept  within  their  limits. 
Here  Marquette  was  delighted  to  see  a  large  cross — the  symbol 
of  his  religion — erected  in  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  centre 
of  the  town.  He  was  even  more  gratified  to  perceive  that  it 
was  covered  with  offerings  which  the  natives  had  presented  to 
the  Great  Spirit.  The  year  before  this,  Father  Allouez,  a 
Catholic  missionary,  had  labored  among  this  people ;  and  so 
deeply  were  they  interested  in  his  communications,  that  they 
scarcely  allowed  him  time  for  necessary  repose.  They  required 
him  to  teach  at  night  as  well  as  through  the  day.  The  cross, 
decorated  with  their  thank-offerings,  was  probably  the  result 
of  his  influence  among  them. 

From  these  Indians  Marquette  obtained  two  guides,  and,  in 
return  for  some  presents,  they  gave  him  a  mat,  which  was  used 
for  a  bed  during  the  whole  voyage.  Like  the  Wild  Rice  Indi- 
ans, they  endeavored  to  dissuade  the  pioneers  from  their  haz- 
ardous expedition,  but  in  vain.  The  loth  of  June  was  a  day 


FATHER  MARQUETTE.  28 1 

of  unusual  excitement  in  the  village.  All  the  inhabitants 
understood  the  object  of  their  visitors.  And  as  they  were  well 
acquainted  with  the  fierce,  warlike  disposition  of  the  powerful 
tribes  to  the  south  and  west,  whom  this  small  company 
intended  to  reach,  they  regarded  the  attempt  as  extremely 
hazardous,  and  one  which  would  most  probably  result  in 
martyrdom.  When,  therefore,  the  hour  arrived  for  their 
friendly  visitors  to  embark,  the  whole  village — chiefs,  braves, 
squaws,  and  naked  children — assembled  together  and  gazed 
with  astonishment  upon  the  temerity  of  this  small  handful  of 
men,  in  exposing  themselves  to  the  power  of  the  distant  bar- 
barous tribes,  and  to  the  perils  of  navigation  which  they 
knew  would  inevitably  beset  them. 

The  voyagers  entered  a  river  which  emptied  into  Green 
Bay,  and  followed  it  to  a  place  known  as  the  Portage.  Here 
they  were  obliged  to  carry  their  two  canoes  across  land  to 
another  river  which  ran  west,  called  the  Mescousin,  but  now 
known  as  the  Wisconsin.  Here  their  guides  left  them,  to 
return.  Until  now,  the  natural  current  of  all  the  water  which 
they  had  traversed  was  toward  Quebec.  From  this  point  the 
water  flowed  in  an  opposite  direction — to  the  west  and  south. 
As  they  passed  slowly  on  through  the  broad,  but  shallow  Wis- 
consin, they  found  the  river  checkered  with  numerous  islands 
of  various  shapes  and  sizes,  covered  with  stately  trees,  and 
ornamented  with  brilliant  flowers  and  the  graceful  drapery  of 
innumerable  vines.  As  they  swept  along  close  by  the  shore, 
various  kinds  of  wild  fowl  were  started,  some  of  which,  as 
they  left  their  nests  or  feeding-places,  would  fly  away  with  a 
shrill,  shrieking  cry,  and  some  with  a  whirring  sound,  whilst 
others  darted  off  noiselessly,  as  if  fearful  of  betraying  the 
direction  of  their  flight.  Occasionally  the  timid  deer  and 
uncouth  buffalo  were  seen,  but  no  Indians.  After  sailing 
about  thirty  leagues,  they  discovered  extensive  iron  mines, 
the  ore  of  which  appeared  to  be  of  good  quality.  They  con- 
tinued their  course  for  forty  leagues  more,  and  on  the  iyth  of 
June  they  entered,  with  emotions  of  gratitude  and  joy,  the 
far-famed  river  of  which  they  were  in  search.  The  friendly 
Wisconsin  had  introduced  them  to  the  magnificent  Mississippi ! 
This  far  everything  had  been  favorable,  and  they  commenced 


282  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

their  exploration  of  the  Rio  Grande,  as  the  unknown  rivet 
was  sometimes  called,  under  encouraging  auspices  and  with 
high  hopes. 

Although  they  had  seen  no  natives  since  they  left  Green 
Bay,  they  were  well  aware  that  they  were  passing  through 
Indian  territory,  and  were  liable  at  any  moment  to  an  attack. 
They  therefore  proceeded  with  great  caution.  Some  of  the 
party  were  always  on  guard  whilst  the  others  took  their  rest. 
As  they  could  not  conveniently  cook  their  food  in  their  small 
canoes  whilst  floating  down  the  stream,  their  method  was  to 
approach  the  shore  in  the  latter  part  of  the  afternoon,  kindle  a 
fire,  cook  their  game,  then  push  out  into  the  middle  of  the  river 
and  anchor  for  the  night  They  proceeded  in  this  manner 
until  the  25th  of  June,  when,  at  a  point  some  sixty  leagues 
below  the  mouth  of  the  Wisconsin,  they  discovered  the  foot- 
prints of  men.  They  now  knew  that  they  were  in  the 
vicinity  of  Indian  settlements.  Looking  around,  they  per- 
ceived a  well-trodden  path,  which  led  into  a  prairie.  This 
was  no  unwelcome  sight.  Although  they  were  no  war  party, 
stealthily  seeking  their  unsuspecting  enemy,  yet  they  were  as 
highly  pleased  to  find  themselves  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Indians  as  were  the  blood-thirsty  warriors  of  the  forest  when 
they  discovered  the  hiding-places  of  those  whom  they  were 
pursuing  for  purposes  of  revenge. 

After  committing  the  canoes  to  the  care  of  the  boatmen, 
and  giving  them  all  necessary  instructions,  Marquette  and 
Joliet  set  out  in  pursuit  of  natives.  After  following  the  beaten 
track  about  six  miles,  they  came  to  a  cluster  of  villages  quite 
romantically  situated,  two  of  them  being  perched  upon  a  hill 
top,  as  if  for  purposes  of  observation,  and  the  other  nestling 
by  the  margin  of  a  graceful  stream,  as  if  it  were  an  outpost 
guarding  the  hill  from  the  approach  of  danger. 

When  they  arrived  within  hailing  distance,  in  order  to 
avoid  exciting  suspicion  by  any  appearance  of  concealment, 
they  paused,  and  signified  their  presence  by  a  loud  call.  In 
an  instant  the  Indians  presented  themselves  at  the  doors  of 
their  cabins.  After  gazing  at  their  unexpected  visitors  a  few 
moments,  they  deputed  four  old  men  of  their  tribe  to  advance 
and  hold  a  parley  with  them.  As  these  four  messengers 


FATHER   MARQUETTE.  283 

approached  with  slow  and  dignified  step,  two  of  them  per- 
formed the  interesting  service  of  elevating  ornamented  pipes 
toward  the  sun,  as  a  sign  of  friendship.  Encouraged  by  this 
proffer  of  peace,  Father  Marquette  broke  silence  and  inquired 
the  name  of  their  nation.  "We  are  Illinois,"  was  their 
reply.  They  then  offered  pipes  to  the  strangers,  and 
invited  them  to  their  homes.  As  they  entered  the  village 
they  were  received  with  every  demonstration  of  respect. 
After  they  were  seated  in  the  wigwam  of  the  chief,  the  cal- 
umet, or  pipe  of  peace,  was  presented  to  them. 

The  Illinois  Indians  were  divided  into  separate  tribes, 
having,  however,  one  general  chief,  who  ruled  over  all.  As 
there  was  to  be  a  council  of  all  these  tribes,  the  chief  invited 
Marquette  and  Joliet  to  attend  it,  which  they  accepted.  They 
were  there  treated  with  every  mark  of  friendship.  Marquette 
explained  fully  the  objects  of  their  voyage.  The  chief 
approved  the  objects,  but  at  the  same  time  earnestly  endeav- 
ored to  dissuade  them  from  attempting  its  accomplishment, 
in  consequence  of  the  perils  which  would  necessarily  be 
incurred.  In  return  for  presents  received  from  Marquette, 
the  chief  gave  him  a  calumet  or  ornamented  pipe. 

After  the  council,  a  feast  of  four  courses  was  served  up  in 
Indian  style,  after  which  the  two  visitors  were  publicly  con- 
ducted, with  great  ceremony,  through  the  village,  and 
received  from  the  hands  of  individuals  small  presents  of 
ornamented  girdles  and  garters.  When  they  returned  to  their 
canoes,  they  were  escorted  by  nearly  a  thousand  natives,  who 
seemed  to  take  pleasure  in  bestowing  upon  them  all  the  tokens 
of  respect  in  their  power. 

Bidding  farewell  to  these  friendly  Indians,  with  the  promise 
of  returning  after  four  moons  (or  months),  our  voyagers  pur- 
sued their  course  down  the  Mississippi.  As  they  were  float- 
ing quietly  upon  the  surface  of  the  water,  their  eyes  were 
arrested  by  two  huge  monsters,  which  were  portrayed  in 
green,  red,  and  blue  upon  the  perpendicular,  rocky  cliffs,  on 
one  side  of  the  stream,  as  if  they  were  Gorgons,  placed  there 
to  defend  the  passage  of  the  river.  So  bright  were  their 
colors,  so  well  defined  their  outline,  and  so  artistic  their  exe- 
cution, as  to  suggest  the  belief  that  they  were  the  work  of 


284  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

savages  ;  and  yet  this  solution  seemed  to  be  disproved  by  the 
height  and  inaccessibleness  of  their  position.  Their  terrific 
appearance  was  well  fitted  to  excite  the  fears  of  the  super- 
stitious. 

Without  stopping  to  settle  the  question  whether  those 
uncouth  figures  on  the  rocks  were  natural  or  artificial,  Mar- 
quette,  after  examining  them  as  long  as  he  desired,  paddled 
off  down  the  stream.  It  was  not  long  before  a  rushing  sound 
was  heard  ;  then  rapids  were  discovered.  Floating  timber 
and  dead  trees,  in  great  quantities,  were  seen  coming  into  the 
Mississippi  from  its  western  side.  They  had  reached  the 
mouth  of  the  Pekitanoni  (Missouri  River).  Until  now  the 
water  of  the  Mississippi  had  been  clean  ;  below  this  it  was 
very  turbid.  The  sediment  brought  into  it  by  the  Pekitanoni 
colored  and  rendered  muddy  the  whole  river. 

As  one  object  of  this  expedition  was  to  discover  the 
course  and  outlet  of  the  Mississippi,  this  was  made  a  subject 
of  special  attention  and  inquiry.  After  they  reached  the 
mouth  of  the  Pekitanoni,  Father  Marquette  formed  the 
opinion  that,  if  the  Mississippi  continued  in  general  the 
same  course  it  had  thus  far,  it  must  empty  itself  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  He  also  expressed  the  belief  that,  by  following 
the  Pekitanoni,  another  river  might  be  reached,  which  dis- 
charged its  waters  into  the  Gulf  of  California.  Marquette 
was  right  in  both  his  opinions: 

Another  river  which  they  came  to,  that  discharged  its 
waters  into  the  Mississippi,  was  called  Ouabouskigou.  This 
came  in  from  the  east,  and  is  now  called  the  Ohio.  Near  its 
mouth  is  a  place  which  was  regarded  by  the  Indians  as  the 
residence  of  some  evil  spirit,  and  against  which  Marquette 
had  been  seriously  cautioned.  An  island  in  the  river  divided 
the  waters,  and  sent  a  portion  with  great  force  against  a  ledge 
of  rocks,  from  which  they  recoiled  with  a  loud  noise,  and 
then  stole  rapidly  away  through  a  narrow  and  dangerous 
channel. 

They  also  discovered  in  this  vicinity  iron  ore,  earths  or 
ochres,  of  purple,  red  and  violet  colors,  some  of  which, 
coming  in  contact  with  the  oar,  produced  a  stain  which  re- 
mained for  more  than  two  weeks.  Tall  reeds  now  began  to 


FATHER  MARQUETTE.  285 

grow  along  the  shores,  and  mosquitoes  became  numerous  and 
troublesome. 

Some  Indians  presented  themselves  upon  the  bank  of  the 
river,  and  appeared  to  be  waiting  for  the  approach  of  the 
voyagers.  Not  knowing  what  their  character  might  be,  the 
boatmen  prepared  for  battle ;  but  the  missionary,  Marquette, 
raised  his  calumet  and  spoke  to  them  in  Huron.  They  made 
no  reply,  but  invited  them,  by  signs,  to  land  and  take  some 
food.  Their  invitation  was  accepted.  Marquette  noticed 
that  this  tribe  were  better  provided  with  weapons  and 
tools  than  the  Illinois  were.  They  had  iron  hoes,  hatchets, 
knives  and  guns.  They  carried  their  powder  in  glass  bottles. 
As  they  could  not  have  manufactured  these,  it  was  evident 
that  they  had  had  intercourse  with  Europeans.  Upon  in- 
quiry, Marquette  ascertained  that  these  articles  were  pur- 
chased of  men  who  came  from  the  East  and  dressed  as  he 
did,  who  had  images  and  beads,  and  performed  on  different 
instruments.  They  were  probably  Europeans,  who  had 
formed  settlements  in  Carolina  and  Virginia.  After  instruct- 
ing them  in  the  elements  of  the  Christian  religion  and  giving 
them  some  medals,  Marquette  continued  his  journey. 

The  next  village  he  came  to  was  called  Metchigamea,  the 
inhabitants  of  which,  at  first,  made  some  warlike  demonstra- 
tions. They  came  out  armed  with  bows,  arrows,  tomahawks 
and  clubs,  and  threatened  to  attack  them.  Marquette  raised 
his  calumet.  The  young  warriors,  pretending  not  to  see  it, 
were  about  to  open  the  battle,  when  some  old  men  made  their 
appearance,  who,  as  soon  as  they  saw  the  pipe  of  peace  in 
Marquette' s  hand,  constrained  the  young  savages  to  desist, 
and,  casting  their  own  weapons  at  the  feet  of  the  visitors, 
they  entered  the  canoes  and  invited  them  to  land.  Their 
invitation  was  accepted,  though  with  some  apprehension. 
Marquette  addressed  them  in  six  different  languages,  but  was 
unsuccessful  in  making  them  understand,  until  an  old  man 
was  found  who  had  some  acquaintance  with  the  language  of 
the  Illinois.  Through  him,  as  an  interpreter,  Marquette  in- 
formed them  of  his  intention  to  proceed  to  the  sea,  and  asked 
of  them  information  as  to  the  distance.  He  also  gave  them, 
as  usual,  religious  instruction.  They  referred  him  to  a 


286  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

town  some  thirty  miles  farther  down  the  river,  called 
Akamsca  (or  Arkansas)  for  the  information  he  desired.  He 
spent  the  night,  though  with  some  degree  of  uneasiness,  on 
shore  among  this  people.  The  next  day  he  took  the  newly- 
found  interpreter,  and  hastened  to  Akamsca.  When  he  had 
arrived  within  about  two  miles  of  it,  he  met  canoes  filled 
with  savages.  As  they  approached,  the  chief  presented  the 
calumet,  and  invited  them  to  go  ashore.  They  were  received 
with  kindness,  and  supplied  with  stores.  They  were  accom- 
panied from  Metchigamea  by  ten  canoes  of  Indians,  who 
preceded  them  on  the  water,  as  if  to  show  them  the  way. 
At  Akamsca  they  very  fortunately  found  a  young  man  who 
was  well  acquainted  with  the  Illinois  language,  and  through 
whom  communications  could  be  made  to  these  Indians  with 
some  degree  of  ease  and  correctness. 

After  making  these  Indians  presents,  as  was  his  usual 
custom,  he  learned  from  them  that  the  sea  was  only  five  days 
distance  ;  but  they  could  give  him  no  additional  information, 
as  between  them  and  it  the  river  was  infested  by  tribes  with 
whom  they  were  at  war,  and  who  prevented  them  from 
holding  intercourse  with  the  inhabitants  who  dwelt  lower 
down. 

While  at  Akamsca,  our  company  of  trustful  voyagers 
were  exposed  to  some  peril.  The  elders  of  the  Indians,  who 
embraced  the  wise  men  and  counsellors  of  the  tribe,  held  a 
secret  meeting,  at  which  they  seriously  deliberated  upon  the 
measures  to  be  adopted  in  their  treatment  of  these  novel,  pale- 
faced  visitors.  Some  were  in  favor  of  murdering  them,  and 
then  taking  possession  of  their  property.  This  they  could 
easily  have  done.  The  chief,  however,  would  not  consent 
He  favored  a  more  peaceful  course.  A  kind  Providence  caused 
his  counsels  to  prevail.  The  result  was  that  Marquette  and 
Joliet  were  invited  to  attend  the  interesting  ceremony  of  the 
dance  of  the  calumet,  at  the  conclusion  of  which  the  chief 
gave  them  a  calumet,  as  an  expression  of  his  friendly  feelings 
towards  them. 

The  question  was  now  considered  whether  it  was  expedient 
to  proceed  farther  south.  Being  persuaded,  from  the  general 
southerly  direction  of  this  crooked  river,  that  it  could  neither 


FATHER  MARQUETTE. 


287 


empty  into  the  Atlantic  at  the  east,  nor  into  the  Gulf  of 
California  at  the  west,  but  that  its  outlet  must  be  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  they  had  accomplished  one  prominent  object 
of  their  expedition.  As  it  was  possible  that  by  penetrating 
farther  south  they  might  be  attacked  by  the  more  warlike 
tribes  and  taken  prisoners,  and  thus  the  results  of  their  dis- 
coveries be  lost  to  the  civilized  world,  they  decided  that  the 
wisest  policy  was  to  return.  They  had  now  been  a  month 
upon  the  river,  during  which  time  they  had  traced  its  serpen- 
tine windings  from  the  forty-second  to  the  thirty-fourth 
degree  of  latitude;  had  examined  the  nature  of  the  country, 
the  character  of  the  inhabitants,  and  had  been  privileged  to 
preach  the  gospel  to  those  who  had  never  before  heard  the 
name  of  Christ. 

On  their  return,  instead  of  ascending  the  Mississippi  to 
the  Wisconsin,  by  which  they  had  entered  it,  they  turned 
into  the  Illinois,  which  conducted  them  by  a  much  shorter 
route  to  Lake  Michigan.  On  the  banks  of  the  Illinois  they 
visited  a  village,  where  they  gave  religious  instruction  to  an 
attentive,  inquiring  people.  The  chief  was  so  much  pleased 
that  he  entreated  Marquette  to  return  and  teach  them  more 
fully.  Some  of  the  young  men  of  this  tribe,  with  a  chief, 
accompanied  our  party  as  far  as  Lake  Michigan,  near,  prob- 
ably, the  place  where  Chicago  now  stands.  From  thence 
it  was  easy  for  them,  by  following  the  shore,  to  find  their  way 
to  Green  Bay.  They  reached  here  in  September,  after  an 
absence  of  four  months,  during  which  time  they  had  traveled 
over  two  thousand  five  hundred  miles. — J.  BANVARD. 


JOHN  WINTHROP. 


JOHN  WINTHROP,  first  Governor 
of  Massachusetts,  was  born  at 
Groton,  Suffolk,  England,  on  Jan- 
uary 12,  1588.  Although  in  the 
possession  of  an  annual  income  of 
$3000  from  an  hereditary  estate, 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  law.  When  in  March,  1629, 
Charles  I.  granted  a  charter  to  a 
corporation  entitled  "The  Com- 
pany of  Massachusetts  Bay  in 
New  England,"  Winthrop  converted  his  estate  into  cash,  and 
sailed  as  Governor,  April  7,  1630,  from  England  with  a  com- 
pany of  nine  hundred  persons.  During  the  passage  across  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  he  wrote  a  tract  on  "A  Model  of  Christian 
Charity."  On  June  I2th,  the  emigrants  arrived  at  Salem. 
The  three  hundred  people  already  settled  there  under  Endi- 
cott  came  under  the  rule  of  Winthrop. 

John  Winthrop  and  his  wealthy  colleagues,  some  time 
before  sailing  from  England,  had  decided  upon  a  "peculiar 
government,"  that  is,  in  modern  phrase,  "home  rule."  To 
carry  out  their  views  fully,  it  was  necessary  to  obtain  a 
transfer  of  the  charter  to  the  freemen  now  emigrating.  The 
patent  and  the  government  were  legally  transferred.  The 
same  year  seventeen  vessels  brought  over  the  Atlantic  1500 
persons.  The  Massachusetts  Bay  Company's  immigrants 
settled  in  Boston  and  other  towns  on  the  Bay. 

Regarding  the  transfer  of  the  charter,  Bancroft  says,  "The 

history  of  Massachusetts  is  the  counterpart  to  that  of  Virginia; 

the  latter  obtained  its  greatest  liberty  by  the  abrogation  of  the 

charter  of  its  company;  the  former  by  a  transfer  of  its  charter 

288 


JOHN  WINTHROP.  289 

and  a  daring  construction  of  its  powers  by  the  successors  of 
the  original  patentees."  The  terms  of  the  patent  presuppose 
that  the  incorporators  would  reside  in  England.  A  stipu- 
lation was  that  the  company  was  empowered  to  elect  forever, 
out  of  the  freemen  of  said  company,  a  Governor,  a  Deputy- 
Governor,  etc.,  to  be  chosen  annually  by  the  greater  part  of 
the  company,  and  to  make  laws  not  repugnant  to  the  laws  of 
England. 

The  transfer  of  the  patent  was  brought  about  because  of 
the  unwillingness  of  some  of  the  rich  and  intending  emi- 
grants to  embark,  foreseeing  the  certainty  of  trouble  if  they 
were  governed  by  a  foreign  board.  In  fact  it  would  have 
been  a  government  analogous  to  that  long  possessed  by  the 
corporation  known  as  the  East  India  Company. 

There  has  been  put  on  record  a  specious  plea  that  they  had 
"no  special  warrant  of  toleration;  they  had  not  even  the 
promise  of  connivance,  which  the  '  Pilgrim  Fathers '  ten  years 
before  had  obtained  from  James  I.  The  charter  does  not  once 
mention  liberty  of  conscience.'1'1  Before  leaving  England,  an 
address  was  signed  by  Winthrop  and  others.  They  said,  ' '  We 
are  not  of  those  that  dream  of  perfection  in  this  world ;  yet  we 
desire  you  to  take  notice  of  the  principals  and  body  of  our 
company,  as  those  who  esteem  it  an  honor  to  call  the  Church 
of  England,  whence  we  rise,  our  dear  Mother.  As  members 
of  the  same  body,  we  shall  always  rejoice  in  her  good,  and 
unfeignedly  grieve  for  any  sorrow  that  shall  ever  betide  her. ' ' 
On  the  3oth  of  June,  1630,  the  first  Church  of  Boston  was 
established. 

During  the  nineteen  years  of  Winthrop' s  life  in  the  colony » 
he  kept  a  journal  of  all  transactions.  He  was  out  of  all  exec- 
utive functions  during  four  years  of  that  time.  He  held  the 
office  of  Governor  twelve  terms,  and  Deputy-Governor  three 
terms.  Complaints  of  the  too  lenient  spirit  of  Governor 
Winthrop  were  made  at  a  meeting  of  the  leading  men  of  the 
colony  in  January,  1636,  whereupon  Winthrop  submitted  to 
their  judgment,  strictly  adhering  thereafter  to  all  measures 
tending  to  support  the  dignity  of  the  government,  by  an 
appearance  of  union  and  a  concealment  of  dissensions  among 
public  officers. 
19 


HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

In  the  year  1634,  when  he  was  left  out  of  the  magistracy, 
some  persons  having  incited  suspicions  of  his  integrity  as  a 
public  officer,  his  accounts  were  audited.  One  of  the  cries 
against  his  re-election  was  that  "by  too  frequent  choice  of  one 
man,  the  office  should  cease  to  be  elective,  and  seem  to  be  his 
by  prescription. ' '  It  is  said  of  Winthrop  that  though  amiable 
of  disposition,  yet  where  the  interest  of  the  colony  was  con- 
cerned, he  could  be  both  firm  and  foremost  in  opposition  to 
the  public  enemies.  Anne  Hutchinson,  a  woman  of  intel- 
lectual ability,  having  held  lectures  at  her  house  in  which  she 
advanced  theological  opinions  deemed  by  the  authorities 
incompatible  with  the  religious  welfare  of  the  people,  the 
colony  began  to  split  into  two  sects.  This  was  during  the 
year  1636,  Sir  Henry  Vane  being  Governor,  and  Winthrop, 
Deputy-Governor. 

At  the  election  in  1637  Winthrop  was  elected  Governor  in 
place  of  Vane.  The  Council,  in  order  to  prevent  the  latter 
from  acquiring  new  adherents  from  the  great  influx  of  immi- 
grants, passed  restrictive  enactments  regarding  the  elective 
franchise.  A  synod  cited  the  Hutchinsonians  before  them, 
and  eighty-two  of  their  opinions  were  condemned  as  erroneous. 
The  holders  of  these  opinions  were  themselves  banished  the 
colony.  Toleration  had  not  then  been  introduced  in  any  of 
the  Protestant  countries  except  Holland,  and  the  best  men 
were  afraid  of  it  During  Winthrop' s  career  in  the  colony, 
the  Brownists,  the  Hutchinsonians,  and  Roger  Williams  were 
expelled;  and  Sir  Henry  Vane  returned  in  disgust  to  England. 
The  religious  liberty  established  by  Roger  Williams  in  Rhode 
Island,  by  the  Dutch  in  New  York,  by  William  Penn  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  by  Lord  Baltimore  in  Maryland,  exhibits 
a  spirit  more  in  accordance  with  true  enlightenment  than  the 
stern  intolerance  of  the  first  rulers  of  Massachusetts  Bay. 
Professor  John  Fiske  declares :  ' '  Neither  Winthrop  nor  Cotton 
approved  of  toleration  upon  principle.  Cotton  asserted  that 
persecution  is  not  wrong  in  itself ;  it  is  wicked  for  falsehood 
to  persecute  truth,  but  it  is  the  sacred  duty  of  truth  to  perse- 
cute falsehood.  Winthrop  was  a  man  of  affairs.  They  had 
come  to  New  England,  he  said,  to  make  a  society  after  their 
own  model ;  all  who  agreed  with  them  might  join  that  society  ; 


JOHN  WINTHROP.  2QI 

those  who  disagreed  with  them  might  go  elsewhere  ;  there 
was  room  enough  on  the  American  continent."  Unfortu- 
nately for  John  Winthrop's  fame,  the  Genius  of  History  gives 
us  no  isolated  picture  of  him,  but  presents  him  to  us  in  marked 
contrast  with  Sir  Henry  Vane  and  Roger  Williams. 

John  Winthrop  lived  to  his  sixty-first  year,  dying  March 
26,  1649.  He  was  married  four  times,  and  of  his  thirteen 
children,  seven  survived  him.  He  was  one  of  the  original 
founders  of  Harvard  College. 

THE  COLONY  OF  MASSACHUSETTS  BAY. 

When  contemplating  emigration  Winthrop  naturally 
turned  his  thoughts  toward  America.  Many  colonies  had 
been  founded  there,  and  the  suitability  of  the  land  for  coloni- 
zation had  been  demonstrated.  In  1628  a  Puritan  colony  had 
been  established  at  Salem,  in  Massachusetts,  with  Endicott 
as  the  governor.  The  company  which  sent  forth  this  colony 
did  so  under  the  security  of  a  patent  obtained  from  the 
Council  for  New  England.  Desiring  to  enlarge  the  scope  of 
the  enterprise,  the  company  applied  for  a  royal  charter  and 
obtained  one  empowering  "The  Governor  and  Company  of 
the  Massachusetts  Bay  in  New  England,"  to  make  laws  and 
govern  the  territory  on  certain  conditions,  and  to  resist  by 
force  of  arms  all  attacks  made  upon  themselves  and  their 
property,  whether  on  land  or  water.  Charles  I.  signed  this 
document  on  the  2ist  of  March,  1629  ;  a  few  days  afterwards 
he  intimated  his  intention  of  governing  the  country  without 
a  parliament.  It  may  be  surmised  that  the  king  looked  upon 
a  Puritan  emigration  as  most  desirable,  insomuch  as  it 
lessened  the  number  of  his  adversaries.  The  writings  of 
Laud  supply  evidence  in  support  of  such  a  conclusion.  In  a 
report  made  to  the  king  in  1636,  Laud  remarked  that  a 
lecturer  at  Yarmouth  having  gone  to  New  England,  there  was 
peace  in  the  town,  and  that  Mr.  Bridge,  a  Puritan  clergyman, 
had  departed  from  Norwich  to  Holland.  After  reading  this, 
Charles  wrote  on  the  margin,  u  Let  him  go ;  we  are  well  rid 
of  him. ' '  Indeed,  so  far  from  showing  any  desire  to  detain 
the  Puritan  leaders  in  England,  the  king  was  resigned  to 


2Q2  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

their  departure,  and  was  prepared  to  exclaim  out  of  the  ful- 
ness of  a  thankful  heart,  ' '  We  are  well  rid  of  them. ' ' 

Twelve  gentlemen  met  at  Cambridge  in  August,  1629, 
and  resolved  that,  if  the  charter  could  be  legally  transferred 
to  America,  they  would  embark  for  the  plantation  of  Massa- 
chusetts Bay  by  the  first  day  of  the  following  March,  with 
the  view  "to  inhabit  and  continue  in  New  England,"  and 
that  they  would  take  their  wives  and  families,  if  the  latter 
would  consent  to  accompany  them.  They  likewise  agreed 
that  any  one  who  failed  through  his  own  default  in  keeping 
this  agreement,  should  forfeit  ^3  for  every  day  that  he  was  un- 
prepared to  start.  Winthrop  was  present  at  the  meeting  and 
assented  to  the  resolutions.  Two  days  later,  a  general  court 
of  the  company  was  held  in  London,  when  it  was  resolved 
that  the  government  should  be  transferred  to  the  plantation 
itself.  At  the  same  meeting  John  Winthrop  was  elected 
governor  of  the  company.  In  April,  1630,  he  set  sail  in  the 
"Arbella"  for  the  Western  continent.  Sir  Simonds  D'Ewes, 
writing  four  years  later,  thus  describes  how  this  expedition 
was  viewed  by  contemporaries.  Previous  emigrants  to  New 
England  had  ' '  chiefly  aimed  at  trade  and  gain,  till  about  the 
year  1630,  in  the  spring,  when  John  Winthrop,  Esq.,  a  Suf- 
folk man,  and  many  other  godly  and  well-disposed  Christians, 
with  the  main  of  their  estates,  and  many  of  them  with  their 
entire  families,  to  avoid  the  burdens  and  snares  which  were 
here  laid  upon  their  consciences,  departed  thither." 

Winthrop  had  taken  a  personal  farewell  of  his  friends 
and  associates  at  a  dinner  before  embarking.  When  about  to 
drink  their  healths  his  feelings  overpowered  him,  and  the 
company  wept  in  concert  at  the  thought  of  never  seeing  each 
other's  faces  any  more.  The  sacrifice  which  Winthrop  made 
in  leaving  his  native  land  has  seldom  been  equalled  by  any 
self-exiled  Englishman.  He  left  a  fine  estate,  where  he  lived 
as  a  county  gentleman  in  the  receipt  of  an  ample  income  and 
enjoying  the  esteem  of  his  neighbors.  The  best  society  of 
the  age  was  open  to  him.  He  had  everything,  in  short, 
which  constitutes  human  happiness,  and  it  proves  the 
strength  of  his  religious  sentiments  that  he  parted  with  his 
property,  withdrew  from  all  the  attractions  of  society,  and 


JOHN   WINTHROP.  293 

separated  himself  from  a  dearly  beloved  wife,  in  order  that 
he  might  help  to  establish  what  he  considered  to  be  a  pure 
Church  and  commonwealth  on  the  North  American  Continent. 

He  arrived  at  Salem  on  the  I2th  of  June,  1631,  after  a 
voyage  of  two  months'  duration.  The  sea  was  often  very 
rough,  but,  as  Winthrop  records,  however  the  tempest  might 
blow  and  the  waves  rage,  it  was  the  exception  for  Sunday  not 
to  be  duly  kept,  and  two  sermons  be  preached.  Every 
Tuesday  and  Wednesday  the  passengers  were  catechized. 
On  board  ship  Winthrop  composed  and  probably  delivered  a 
discourse  entitled  "Christian  Charity."  In  the  course  of  it 
he  set  forth  the  objects  of  their  society,  which  was  composed 
of  persons  professing  to  be  fellow  members  of  Christ,  who 
were  ' '  seeking  out  a  place  of  cohabitation  and  consortship 
under  a  due  form  of  government,  both  civil  and  ecclesiasti- 
cal," whose  end  was  the  improvement  of  their  lives,  and  who 
hoped  to  attain  it  by  bringing  "into  familiar  and  constant 
practice"  what  most  of  the  churches  in  England  "main- 
tained as  truth  in  profession  only." 

On  the  sixtieth  day  after  sailing,  land  was  seen.  "  There 
came  a  smell  off  the  shore,  like  the  smell  of  a  garden."  Four 
days  later,  Winthrop  was  able  to  record  that  he  and  others 
went  on  shore,  where  they  supped  on  "  a  good  venison  pasty 
and  good  beer,"  'nd  that  some  of  the  passengers  "gathered 
store  of  fine  strawberries  at  Cape  Ann." 

The  settlers  at  Salem  numbered  300  when  Winthrop 
arrived.  About  1000  persons  were  transported  in  the  ships 
which  sailed  with  him  or  followed  after.  The  cost  of  the 
enterprise  was  reckoned  at  ^192,  ooo.  The  vessels  were  laden 
with  provisions  to  feed  the  settlers,  wood  and  iron  wherewith 
to  build  houses,  and  sheep,  pigs,  cattle  and  horses  wherewith 
to  stock  the  land.  Most  of  the  goats  and  horses  died  at  sea, 
and  only  half  of  the  cows  survived.  This  was  not  the  worst. 
The  settlers  were  in  great  straits  for  food,  and  stood  in  need 
of  the  assistance  which  the  newcomers  expected  from  them. 
Fever  broke  out,  and  carried  off  200  before  Winthrop  had  been 
six  months  in  the  country.  At  least  100  returned  to  England, 
both  because  they  were  in  dread  of  famine,  and  also  because 
they  objected  to  the  strictness  of  the  discipline  which  prevailed. 


294  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

Deputy-Governor  Dudley,  when  informing  the  Countess  of 
Lincoln,  by  letter,  what  had  occurred,  states  that  those  per- 
sons who  thought  of  joining  them  for  worldly  ends  had  better 
stay  at  home  ;  but  that,  if  influenced  by  spiritual  motives, 
they  would  find  in  New  England  what  would  satisfy  them  ; 
that  is,  "materials  to  build,  fuel  to  burn,  ground  to  plant, 
seas  and  rivers  to  fish  in,  a  pure  air  to  breathe  in,  good  water 
to  drink  till  wine  and  beer  can  be  made,  which,  together  with 
the  cows,  hogs  and  goats  brought  hither  already,  may  suffice 
for  food.  As  for  fowl  and  venison,  they  are  dainties  here  as 
well  as  in  England.  For  clothes  and  bedding,  they  must  bring 
them  with  them  till  time  and  industry  produce  them  here.  In 
a  word,  we  yet  enjoy  little  to  be  envied,  but  endure  much  to 
be  pitied  in  the  sickness  and  mortality  of  our  people. ' ' 

The  story  of  Winthrop's  life  during  the  nineteen  years 
passed  in  New  England  is  virtually  the  history  of  the  rise  and 
progress  of  the  Company  of  Massachusetts  Bay.  It  was  owing 
to  him  that  the  peninsula  then  called  Shawmut,  upon  which 
Boston  now  stands,  was  selected  as  suitable  for  settlement,  an 
excellent  spring  of  water  being  the  chief  attraction.  The 
Rev.  William  Blackstone,  who  claimed  the  right  of  owner- 
ship, was  paid  a  small  sum  for  permitting  houses  to  be  erected 
on  Shawmut,  and  he  left  the  spot  when  he  found  that  he  was 
to  be  under  subjection  to  stricter  Puritans  than  himself. — W. 
FRASER  RAE. 


GEN.  ANTHONY  WAYNE. 


ANTHONY  WAYNE  was  the  Ney 
of  the  War  of  American  Independ- 
ence. His  name  has  passed  into  a 
synonym  for  all  that  is  unsurpassed 
in  courage.  Men  of  Wayne's 
class  have  been,  in  all  ages,  the 
favorites  of  the  masses.  He  stood 
alone  among  the  American  generals 
in  the  terrible  power  which  he 
infused  into  a  column  of  attack. 
Had  he  been  one  of  Napoleon's 
Marshals,  he  would  have  rivaled 
Macdonald  at  Wagram,  or  Ney  at  Waterloo. 

Anthony  Wayne,  whose  ancestors  were  of  English  descent, 
was  born  at  Easttown,  Chester  County,  Pennsylvania,  on 
January  i,  1745.  He  received  a  fair  education,  and,  at  the 
age  of  eighteen,  became  a  land-surveyor.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-one  he  was  sent  to  Nova  Scotia  as  a  surveyor  in  the 
service  of  a  wealthy  association,  on  the  recommendation  of 
Benjamin  Franklin.  In  1767  he  married  and  settled  perma- 
nently in  his  native  county.  As  early  as  1764  he  had  applied 
himself  to  the  study  of  military  science.  In  1774  he  was 
chosen  one  of  the  provincial  deputies  to  consider  the  relations 
between  the  Colonies  and  Great  Britain,  and  also  a  member 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Convention,  held  at  Philadelphia,  to  dis- 
cuss similar  questions.  At  the  same  time  he  represented  his 
county  in  the  Pennsylvania  Colonial  Legislature.  In  1775 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety. 

On  the  breaking  out  of  hostilities  he  raised  the  Fourth  Penn- 
sylvania Regiment,  and  was  commissioned  Colonel  on  January 

295 


296  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

3,  1776,  and  shortly  afterwards  went  with  the  expedition  to 
Canada,  where,  in  the  battle  of  Three  Rivers,  he  was  wounded 
and  defeated.  He  retreated  and  concentrated  his  forces  at 
Ticonderoga. 

In  February,  1777,  Wayne  was  commissioned  Brigadier- 
General,  and  in  the  following  May  he  rendered  Washington 
important  aid  in  driving  the  enemy  from  New  Jersey. 

In  the  action  at  Brandywine,  September  6,  1777,  Wayne, 
who  commanded  at  Chadd's  Ford,  particularly  distinguished 
himself.  A  few  days  later  Wayne  led  the  attack  at  Warren 
Tavern,  on  Howe's  rear ;  but  he  himself  was  attacked  at  Paoli 
by  superior  numbers  on  the  2Oth  of  the  same  month.  Wayne, 
who  had  an  intimation  of  the  intended  attack,  had  ordered 
Colonel  Hampton  to  retreat ;  but  through  some  misappre- 
hension, Hampton  did  not  put  his  men  in  motion  until  three 
distinct  orders  had  been  sent  to  him.  The  consequence  was 
the  loss  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  of  his  troop,  who  were 
bayoneted.  Colonel  Hampton  charged  the  misfortune  to  the 
negligence  of  Wayne.  A  court-martial  declared  that  the 
General  had  done  everything  that  could  be  expected  of  a 
brave  and  vigilant  officer. 

In  the  battle  at  Germantown,  Wayne,  who  commanded  a 
division  of  the  right  wing,  carried  the  position  that  was 
assigned  to  him  to  take,  but  the  Americans  having  failed  in 
their  purpose,  retreated.  During  the  winter  of  1777-8,  he 
foraged  New  Jersey  for  supplies  to  the  army  at  Valley  Forge. 
In  the  battle  at  Monmouth  he  signalized  himself  by  the 
utmost  daring,  and  was  one  of  the  few  who  sided  with  Wash- 
ington in  recommending  an  engagement. 

The  most  brilliant  affair  of  the  War  of  Independence  and 
of  General  Wayne's  career  was  the  capture  of  Stony  Point, 
on  the  1 5th  of  July,  1779.  Stony  Point  is  a  precipitous  hill, 
on  the  western  shore  of  the  Hudson  River,  completely  com- 
manding King's  Ferry,  the  then  ordinary  communication 
between  the  Middle  and  Eastern  States.  This  strong  posi- 
tion, in  the  possession  of  six  hundred  British  troops,  was 
washed  on  two  sides  by  the  river,  and  covered  on  the  third 
side  by  a  marsh.  The  enemy  encircled  this  hill  with  a  double 
row  of  abattis,  and  erected  on  its  summit  a  breastwork  brist- 


GENERAI,  ANTHONY  WAYNE.  297 

ling  with  artillery.  On  a  starry  but  moonless  night,  Wayne 
made  the  assault.  It  was  arranged  to  be  in  two  columns, 
which,  entering  the  fort  at  opposite  corners,  were  to  meet  in 
the  centre,  at  midnight.  Wayne  placed  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  right  column.  ' '  The  first  man  that  fires  his  piece  shall 
be  cut  down,"  was  his  short  address  ;  "trust  to  the  bayonet. 
March ! ' '  Though  the  British  had  been  foiled  at  Bunker 
Hill,  under  nearly  similar  circumstances,  yet  Stony  Point  was 
taken.  The  American  loss  was  about  one  hundred.  For  this 
splendid  attack  Wayne  was  voted  a  gold  medal  by  Congress, 
together  with  its  thanks.  His  fiery  daring  won  for  him  the 
popular  sobriquet,  "Mad  Anthony." 

The  great  popularity  of  Wayne  with  the  masses  of  the 
people  was  shown  by  the  success  of  his  efforts  to  quell  the 
mutiny  of  the  Pennsylvania  Line.  On  January  i,  1781,  the 
prolonged  distress  of  these  troops,  caused  by  want  of  pay  and 
provisions,  culminated  in  their  throwing  down  their  arms. 
Wayne's  appeal  to  their  patriotism  and  pledge  of  relief  restored 
order.  Sir  Henry  Clinton  made  offers  to  the  mutineers,  but 
received  the  memorable  answer  that  "their  patience, but  not 
their  patriotism,  was  exhausted. ' '  In  the  latter  part  of  this 
year  Wayne  was  very  active  in  the  various  skirmishes  con- 
nected with  the  siege  of  Yorktown.  After  the  surrender  of 
Cornwallis,  Wayne  joined  General  Greene  in  the  South,  and 
on  the  23d  of  June,  1782,  defeated  the  Creek  Indians  with 
great  slaughter. 

General  Wayne,  having  settled  in  Georgia,  served  in  Con- 
gress a  few  months.  He  was  nominated  by  Washington  as 
General-in-Chief  of  the  United  States  Army,  with  the  rank  of 
Major-General,  and  was  confirmed  April  3,  1792.  The  turbu- 
lent state  of  the  Indians  in  the  Northwest,  instigated  as  they 
were  by  the  British,  caused  Wayne  to  place  himself  in  charge 
of  the  American  troops  at  Fort  Miami,  Ohio ;  and  on  the  2oth 
of  August,  1793,  he  completely  defeated  the  tribes.  Nearly  all 
of  the  dead  warriors  were  found  to  have  British  arms  in  their 
possession.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  by  twelve  tribes  of 
Indians,  August  3,  1795,  and  long  remained  respected. 

Wayne  died  in  Presque  Isle  (now  Erie),  Pennsylvania, 
from  an  attack  of  the  gout,  on  the  I5th  of  December,  1796. 


298  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

He  was  on  his  return  from  the  Northwest,  whither  he  had 
gone  to  take  possession  of  all  the  forts  that  had  been  held  by 
the  British  in  that  territory.  In  1809  his  body  was  removed 
to  Radnor  Churchyard,  in  Chester  County.  A  monument, 
erected  by  the  Pennsylvania  State  Society  of  the  Cincinnati, 
marks  the  place  of  interment 

THE  CAPTURE  OF  STONY  POINT. 

Among  the  many  exploits  of  gallantry  and  prowess  which 
shed  a  lustre  on  the  fame  of  the  Revolutionary  Army,  the 
storming  of  the  fort  at  Stony  Point  has  always  been  consid- 
ered one  of  the  most  brilliant.  To  General  Wayne,  who 
commanded  the  light  infantry  of  the  army,  the  execution  of 
the  plan  was  entrusted.  Secrecy  was  deemed  so  much  more 
essential  to  success  than  numbers,  that  it  was  thought  unad- 
visable  to  add  to  the  force  already  on  the  lines.  One  brigade 
was  ordered  to  commence  its  march  so  as  to  reach  the  scene  of 
action  in  time  to  cover  the  troops  engaged  in  the  attack,  in  case 
of  any  unlooked-for  disaster ;  and  Major  Henry  Lee,  of  the 
Light  Dragoons,  who  had  been  eminently  useful  in  obtaining 
the  intelligence  which  led  to  the  enterprise,  was  associated 
with  General  Wayne,  as  far  as  cavalry  could  be  employed. 

The  night  of  the  I5th  of  July,  1779,  was  fixed  on  for  the 
assault ;  and  it  being  suspected  that  the  garrison  would  prob- 
ably be  more  on  their  guard  towards  day,  twelve  was  chosen 
for  the  hour. 

Stony  Point  is  a  commanding  hill,  projecting  far  into  the 
Hudson,  which  washes  three-fourths  of  its  base.  The 
remaining  fourth  is,  in  a  great  measure,  covered  by  a  deep 
marsh,  commencing  near  the  river  on  the  upper  side,  and 
continuing  into  it  below.  Over  this  marsh  there  is  only  one 
crossing-place.  But  at  its  junction  with  the  river  it  is  a  sandy 
beach,  passable  at  low  tide.  On  the  summit  of  this  hill  was 
erected  the  fort,  which  was  furnished  with  a  sufficient  number 
of  heavy  pieces  of  ordnance.  Several  breastworks  and 
strong  batteries  were  advanced  in  front  of  the  principal  work, 
and  about  half  way  down  the  hill  were  two  rows  of  abattis. 
The  batteries  were  calculated  to  command  the  beach  and  the 
crossing-place  of  the  marsh,  and  to  rake  and  enfilade  any 


GENERAL  ANTHONY  WAYNE.  299 

column  which  might  be  advancing  from  either  of  those  points 
towards  the  fort  In  addition  to  these  defenses,  several  ves- 
sels of  war  were  stationed  in  the  river,  so  as,  in  a  considerable 
degree,  to  command  the  ground  at  the  foot  of  the  hill. 

The  fort  was  garrisoned  by  about  six  hundred  men,  under 
the  command  of  Lieutenant-Colonel  Johnson. 

At  noon  of  the  day  preceding  the  night  of  the  attack,  the 
light  infantry  commenced  their  march  from  Sandy  Beach, 
distant  fourteen  miles  from  Stony  Point,  and  passing  through 
an  excessively  rugged  and  mountainous  country,  arrived  about 
8  P.  M.  at  Spring  Steel's,  one  and  a  half  miles  from  the  fort, 
where  the  dispositions  for  the  assault  were  made. 

It  was  intended  to  attack  the  works  on  the  right  and  left 
flanks  at  the  same  instant.  The  regiments  of  Febiger,  and  of 
Meiggs,  with  Major  Hull's  detachment,  formed  the  right 
column,  and  Butler's  Regiment,  with  two  companies  under 
Major  Murfree,  formed  the  left.  One  hundred  and  fifty  vol- 
unteers, led  by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Fleury  and  Major  Posey, 
constituted  the  van  of  the  right ;  and  one  hundred  volunteers 
under  Major  Stewart,  composed  the  van  of  the  left.  At  half- 
past  eleven  the  two  columns  moved  on  to  the  charge,  the  van 
of  each  with  unloaded  muskets  and  fixed  bayonets.  They 
were  each  preceded  by  a  forlorn  hope  of  twenty  men,  the  one 
commanded  by  Lieutenant  Gibbon,  and  the  other  by  Lieuten- 
ant Knox,  whose  duty  it  was  to  remove  the  abattis  and  other 
obstructions,  in  order  to  open  a  passage  for  the  columns 
which  followed  close  in  the  rear. 

Proper  measures  having  been  taken  to  secure  every  indi- 
vidual on  the  route  who  could  give  intelligence  of  their 
approach,  the  Americans  reached  the  marsh  undiscovered. 
But  unexpected  difficulties  having  been  experienced  in  sur- 
mounting this  and  other  obstructions  in  the  way,  the  assault 
did  not  commence  until  twenty  minutes  after  twelve.  Both 
columns  then  rushed  forward,  under  a  tremendous  fire  of 
musketry  and  grape-shot.  Surmounting  every  obstacle,  they 
entered  the  works  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet,  and  without 
having  discharged  a  single  piece,  obtained  complete  possession 
of  the  post 

All  the  troops  engaged  in  this  perilous  service  manifested 


300  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

a  degree  of  ardor  and  impetuosity  which  proved  them  to  be 
capable  of  the  most  difficult  enterprises ;  and  all  distinguished 
themselves  whose  situation  enabled  them  to  do  so.  Colonel 
Fleury  was  the  first  to  enter  the  fort  and  strike  the  British 
standard.  Major  Posey  mounted  the  works  almost  at  the 
same  instant,  and  was  the  first  to  give  the  watchword — "  The 
fort's  our  own."  Lieutenants  Gibbon  and  Knox  performed 
the  service  allotted  to  them  with  a  degree  of  intrepidity  which 
could  not  be  surpassed.  Out  of  twenty  men  who  constituted 
the  party  of  the  former,  seventeen  were  killed  or  wounded. 

The  loss  sustained  by  the  garrison  was  not  considerable. 
The  return  made  by  L/ieutenant- Colonel  Johnson  represented 
their  dead  at  only  twenty,  including  one  captain,  and  their 
wounded  at  six  officers  and  sixty-eight  privates.  The  return 
made  by  General  Wayne  states  their  dead  at  sixty-three,  in- 
cluding two  officers.  This  difference  may  be  accounted  for 
by  supposing  that  among  those  Colonel  Johnson  supposed  to 
be  missing,  there  were  many  killed.  The  prisoners  amounted 
to  five  hundred  and  forty-three,  among  whom  were  one 
lieutenant-colonel,  four  captains,  and  twenty  subaltern  officers. 
The  military  stores  taken  in  the  fort  were  also  considerable. 

The  loss  sustained  by  the  assailants  was  by  no  means  pro- 
portioned to  the  apparent  danger  of  the  enterprise.  The  killed 
and  wounded  did  not  exceed  one  hundred  men.  General 
Wayne  himself,  who  marched  at  the  head  of  Febiger's  regi- 
ment in  the  right  column,  received  a  slight  wound  in  the 
head,  which  stunned  him  for  a  time,  but  did  not  compel  him 
to  leave  the  column.  Being  supported  by  his  aids,  he  entered 
the  fort  with  the  regiment. — E.  FERRETT. 


TO  oppose  the  formidable  invasion  of  Darius, 
King  of  Persia,  in  490  B.C.,  the  Athenians 
had  only  their  courage,  their  dread  of 
slavery,  their  discipline,  and  about  ten 
thousand  men.  Their  civil  commotions 
with  the  other  Grecian  States  had  given 
them  a  spirit  of  war  and  stratagem.  Every 
citizen  was  a  statesman  and  a  general,  so  to 
speak,  and  every  soldier  considered  himself 
as  one  of  the  bulwarks  of  his  country. 
Miltiades  was  the  son  of  Cimon  and  nephew  of  Miltiades, 
an  illustrious  Athenian,  who,  having  been  invited  by  the 
natives  of  the  Thracian  Chersonesus  to  found  in  it  an  Athe- 
nian colony,  which  might  assist  in  their  defence,  had  agreed 
to  the  proposal,  and  had  been  made  a  so-called  tyrant  or  ruler 
of  the  Chersonesus.  On  his  death,  as  he  left  no  children,  his 
authority  passed  to  his  nephew,  Stesagoras.  He  also  died, 
and  in  the  hope  of  succeeding  him,  Miltiades,  his  younger 
brother,  went  from  Athens  to  the  Chersonesus.  By  a  mix- 
ture of  fraud  and  force,  Miltiades  secured  the  position  of 
"tyrant,"  and  strengthened  himself  in  it  by  keeping  five 
hundred  guards,  and  by  marrying  the  daughter  of  Olorus,  a 
Thracian  prince.  He  was  appointed  to  this  government  the 
same  year  that  Darius  undertook  his  unsuccessful  Thracian 
expedition ;  was  obliged  to  attend  that  prince  as  far  as  the 
Ister  or  Danube,  with  what  shipping  he  was  able  to  supply ; 
but,  ever  eager  to  throw  off  the  Persian  yoke,  it  was  he  who 
advised  the  lonians  to  destroy  the  bridge  over  the  Ister  and 
leave  the  army  of  Darius  to  its  fate  in  the  wilderness  beyond. 
The  lonians,  however,  insisted  on  its  preservation,  and 
Darius  owed  to  them  his  safety.  When  the  affairs  of  the 

301 


302  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

Greeks  began  to  decline  in  Asia,  Miltiades,  rather  than  live 
in  dependence,  resolved  to  return  once  more  to  Athens ;  and 
thither  he  returned  with  five  ships,  which  were  all  that 
remained  of  his  shattered  fortunes. 

Darius  now  turned  his  arms  against  the  petty  States  of 
Greece  which  had  audaciously  refused  to  acknowledge  his 
supremacy.  He  carried  the  town  of  Eretria  by  storm,  and, 
flushed  with  victory,  led  his  army  to  the  plain  of  Mara- 
thon, a  fertile  valley  but  ten  miles  distant  from  Athens. 
The  Athenians  placed  their  army  under  the  leadership  of  ten 
generals,  of  whom  Miltiades  was  chief.  These  generals  dis- 
puted whether  they  should  hazard  a  battle  or,  staying  within 
the  walls,  await  the  approach  of  the  enemy.  Opinions  were 
equal  on  either  side  of  the  argument  when  the  suffrages 
came  to  be  taken.  It  now,  therefore,  remained  for  Callima- 
chus,  the  Polemarch,  who  had  a  right  of  voting  as  well  as  the 
ten  commanders,  to  give  his  opinion,  and  decide  this  impor- 
tant question.  Miltiades  was  for  risking  an  advance  ;  and  he 
explained  that  the  only  means  to  exalt  the  courage  of  their 
own  troops  and  to  strike  terror  into  the  enemy,  was  to 
advance  boldly  towards  them.  "If,"  said  he,  " we  decline 
a  battle,  I  foresee  some  great  dissension  will  shake  the  fidelity 
of  the  army,  and  induce  them  to  a  compliance  with  the  Medes ; 
but  if  we  fight  before  corruption  insinuates  itself  into  the 
hearts  of  the  Athenians,  we  may  hope,  from  the  equity  of  the 
gods,  to  obtain  a  victory. ' '  Callimachus  gave  his  voice  in 
favor  of  an  open  engagement 

The  Athenians  had  been  joined  by  the  whole  strength  of 
Plataea,  which  little  commonwealth  had  thrown  itself  on  their 
protection  against  Thebes,  and  had  ever  since  been  their 
most  faithful  ally.  Miltiades,  now  vested  with  the  supreme 
command,  drew  up  his  combined  forces  of  10,000  men  at  the 
foot  of  a  mountain,  so  that  the  enemy — an  army  of  120,000 
strong — should  not  surround  him  or  attack  him  in  the  rear. 
He  had  large  trees  cut  down  and  placed  on  the  flanks  on 
either  side.  These  trees  served  to  guard  him  against  the 
dreaded  Persian  cavalry.  The  engagement  now  pending  was 
to  decide  the  liberty  of  Greece,  and  even  the  future  progress 
of  civilization  among  mankind.  The  Athenians,  without 


MILTIADES.  303 

waiting  the  Persian  onset,  rushed  in  upon  their  ranks.  The 
battle  was  long,  fierce  and  obstinate.  At  last  the  scale  of 
victory  began  to  turn  in  favor  of  the  Greeks.  The  Persians 
gave  way  and  fled  to  their  ships  in  great  confusion.  The 
Athenians  followed  them  to  the  beach  and  set  many  of  their 
ships  on  fire.  Seven  of  the  enemy's  ships  were  taken  ;  six 
thousand  of  their  men  were  slain,  and  many  more  drowned 
in  endeavoring  to  reach  the  vessels.  The  Greeks  lost  200 
men  only.  Thus  ended  the  ever-memorable  battle  of  Mara- 
thon, 490  B.C. 

The  Persian  army,  on  its  embarkation,  sailed  immediately 
towards  Athens,  hoping  to  surprise  it  in  the  absence  of  its 
defenders  ;  but  Miltiades,  guessing  their  design,  made  a  hasty 
march,  and  arrived  in  the  city  before  the  enemy  was  in  sight 
The  baffled  invaders  returned  to  Asia.  The  Greeks,  in 
acknowledgment  of  the  inestimable  merits  of  Miltiades,  had 
a  picture  painted,  in  which  he  was  represented  at  the  head  of 
the  ten  commanders  exhorting  the  army.  There  were  also 
erected  three  sorts  of  monuments  to  all  that  had  fallen  ; 
one  for  the  Athenians,  one  for  the  Plataeans,  and  a  third  for 
the  slaves. 

But  though  the  gratitude  of  the  Athenians  to  Miltiades 
was  very  sincere,  yet  it  was  of  no  long  continuance.  The 
Parians  had  assisted  the  Persians  with  ships  in  the  expedition 
to  Marathon.  Miltiades  made  this  an  excuse,  in  order  to  take 
a  revenge  on  one  Lysagoras,  a  Parian,  who  had  done  him 
injury  with  Hydarnes,  the  Persian.  Taking  a  fleet  of  seventy 
ships,  he  arrived  at  Paros  and  demanded  from  the  Parians  a 
fine  of  one  hundred  talents,  threatening  in  case  of  refusal  to 
besiege  the  city.  The  Parians  refused.  Miltiades  at  once 
invested  the  place.  A  Parian  priestess  came  to  him  and  pre- 
tended to  inform  him  how  he  might  take  the  city.  In  conse- 
quence of  what  she  told  him  he  repaired  to  the  temple  of 
Ceres,  the  lawgiver,  and,  being  unable  to  open  the  gate, 
climbed  to  the  top  of  the  wall  and  leaped  down.  Being, 
however,  seized  with  a  sudden  tremor,  he  endeavored  again 
to  scale  the  wall,  and  in  so  doing  fell  and  broke  his  thigh- 
bone. Raising  the  siege,  he  returned  to  Athens,  in  which 
cfty  an  unfortunate  man  was  never  welcome. 


304  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

Accused  by  Xanthippus  of  having  taken  a  bribe  from 
Persia,  Miltiades  was  at  once  brought  to  trial.  His  wound 
disabled  him  from  defending  himself ;  but  he  was  carried  into 
the  assembly  on  a  bed,  while  his  friends  defended  him,  princi- 
pally by  recalling  his  former  services.  The  memory  of  these, 
with  pity  for  his  present  condition,  prevailed  on  the  people  to 
absolve  him  from  the  capital  charge  ;  but  they  fined  him  fifty 
talents  (about  $53,000),  this  being  the  cost  of  the  late  unsuc- 
cessful expedition.  This  money  he  was  unable  to  pay,  and  he 
was  thrown  into  prison,  where  he  shortly  died  of  gangrene  of 
his  wound.  The  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  obscure. 
His  son  Cimon  afterwards  paid  the  fine,  and  a  monument  was 
raised  in  honor  of  Miltiades,  on  the  plain  of  Marathon. 

Miltiades,  with  brilliant  generalship,  showed  great  power 
as  a  statesman,  and  was  also  an  able  speaker,  an  essential 
qualification  for  success  in  Athenian  public  life.  Whether 
his  attack  on  Paros  was  an  abuse  of  public  authority  to  the 
gratification  of  private  revenge,  or  the  first  act  in  a  scheme 
for  the  establishment  of  naval  empire,  is  disputed  by  historians. 
Though  called  a  tyrant,  Miltiades  has  very  justly  been  lauded . 
for  his  condescension  and  moderation.  To  him  Athens  was 
indebted  for  its  preservation  and  even  for  all  its  glory  ;  since 
he  was  the  man  who  first  taught  her  to  despise  the  empty 
menaces  of  the  boastful  Persian  King. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  MARATHON. 

When  Miltiades  arrayed  his  men  for  action,  he  staked  on 
the  arbitrament  of  one  battle  not  only  the  fate  of  Athens,  but 
that  of  all  Greece  ;  for  if  Athens  had  fallen,  no  other  Greek 
State,  except  Lacedaemon,  would  have  had  the  courage  to 
resist ;  and  the  Lacedaemonians,  though  they  would  probably 
have  died  in  their  ranks  to  the  last  man,  never  could  have 
successfully  resisted  the  victorious  Persians  and  the  numerous 
Greek  troops  which  would  have  soon  marched  under  the 
Persian  satraps,  had  they  prevailed  over  Athens. 

Great  as  the  preponderance  of  the  Persian  over  the 
Athenian  power  at  the  crisis  seems  to  have  been,  it  would 
be  unjust  to  impute  wild  rashness  to  the  policy  of  Miltiades 
and  those  who  voted  with  him  in  the  Athenian  council  of 


MILTIADES.  305 

war,  or  to  look  on  the  after-current  of  events  as  the  mere 
fortunate  result  of  successful  folly.  As  before  has  been 
remarked,  Miltiades,  while  Prince  of  the  Chersonese,  had 
seen  service  in  the  Persian  armies ;  and  he  knew  by  personal 
observation  how  many  elements  of  weakness  lurked  beneath 
their  imposing  aspect  of  strength.  He  knew  that  the  bulk 
of  their  troops  no  longer  consisted  of  the  hardy  shepherds 
and  mountaineers  from  Persia  proper  and  Kurdistan,  who 
won  Cyrus'  battles ;  but  that  unwilling  contingents  from 
conquered  nations  now  filled  up  the  Persian  muster-rolls, 
fighting  more  from  compulsion  than  from  any  zeal  in  the 
cause  of  their  masters.  He  had  also  the  sagacity  and  the 
spirit  to  appreciate  the  superiority  of  the  Greek  armor  and 
organization  over  the  Asiatic,  notwithstanding  former  re- 
verses. Above  all,  he  felt  and  worthily  trusted  the  enthu- 
siasm of  those  whom  he  led. 

The  Athenians  whom  he  led  had  proved  by  their  new- 
born valor  in  recent  wars  against  the  neighboring  States  that 
"liberty  and  equality  of  civic  rights  are  brave  spirit-stirring 
things,  and  they  who,  while  under  the  yoke  of  a  despot,  had 
been  no  better  men  of  war  than  any  of  their  neighbors,  as 
soon  as  they  were  free,  became  the  foremost  men  of  all ;  for 
each  felt  that  in  fighting  for  a  free  commonwealth  he  fought 
for  himself,  and  whatever  he  took  in  hand,  he  was  zealous  to 
do  the  work  thoroughly."  So  the  nearly  contemporaneous 
historian  describes  the  change  of  spirit  that  was  seen  in  the 
Athenians  after  their  tyrants  were  expelled ;  and  Miltiades 
knew  that  in  leading  them  against  the  invading  army,  where 
they  had  Hippias,  the  foe  they  most  hated,  before  them,  he 
was  bringing  into  battle  no  ordinary  men,  and  could  calcu- 
late on  no  ordinary  heroism. 

With  these  hopes  and  risks,  Miltiades,  on  the  afternoon 
of  a  September  day,  490  B.C.,  gave  the  word  for  the  Athenian 
army  to  prepare  for  battle.  There  were  many  local  associa- 
tions connected  with  those  mountain  heights  which  were 
calculated  powerfully  to  excite  the  spirits  of  the  men,  and  of 
which  the  commanders  well  knew  how  to  avail  themselves 
in  their  exhortations  to  their  troops  before  the  encounter. 
Marathon  itself  was  a  region  sacred  to  Hercules.  Close  to 
20 


306  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

them  was  the  Fountain  of  Macaria,  who  had  in  days  of  yore 
devoted  herself  to  death  for  the  liberty  of  her  people.  The 
very  plain  on  which  they  were  to  fight  was  the  scene  of  the 
exploits  of  their  national  hero,  Theseus ;  and  there,  too,  as 
old  legends  told,  the  Athenians  and  the  Heraclidae  had  routed 
the  invader,  Eurystheus.  These  traditions  were  not  mere 
cloudy  myths  or  idle  fictions,  but  matters  of  implicit,  earnest 
faith  to  the  men  of  that  day,  and  many  a  fervent  prayer  arose 
from  the  Athenians'  ranks  to  the  heroic  spirits  who,  while  on 
earth,  had  striven  and  suffered  on  tljat  very  spot,  and  who 
were  believed  to  be  now  heavenly  powers,  looking  down  with 
interest  on  their  still-beloved  country,  and  capable  of  inter- 
posing with  superhuman  aid  in  its  behalf. 

According  to  old  national  custom,  the  warriors  of  each 
tribe  were  arrayed  together ;  neighbor  thus  fighting  by  the 
side  of  neighbor,  friend  by  friend,  and  the  spirit  of  emula- 
tion and  the  consciousness  of  responsibility  excited  to  the 
very  utmost.  The  War-ruler,  Callimachus,  had  the  leading 
of  the  right  wing ;  the  Plateeans  formed  the  extreme  left ; 
and  Themistocles  and  Aristides  commanded  the  centre. 
The  line  consisted  of  the  heavy  armed  spearmen  only ;  for 
the  Greeks  (until  the  time  of  Iphicrates)  took  little  or  no 
account  of  light-armed  soldiers  in  a  pitched  battle,  using 
them  only  in  skirmishes,  or  for  the  pursuit  of  a  defeated 
enemy.  The  panoply  of  the  regular  infantry  consisted  of 
a  long  spear,  a  shield,  helmet,  breast-plate,  greaves  and 
short  sword.  Thus  equipped,  they  usually  advanced  slowly 
and  steadily  into  action  in  a  uniform  phalanx  of  about  eight 
spears  deep.  But  the  military  genius  of  Miltiades  led  him  to 
deviate  on  this  occasion  from  the  commonplace  tactics  of  his 
countrymen.  It  was  essential  for  him  to  extend  his  line  so 
as  to  cover  all  the  practicable  ground,  and  to  secure  himself 
from  being  outflanked  and  charged  in  the  rear  by  the  Persian 
horse.  This  extension  involved  the  weakening  of  his  line. 
Instead  of  a  uniform  reduction  of  its  strength,  he  determined 
on  detaching  principally  from  his  centre,  which,  from  the 
nature  of  the  ground,  would  have  the  best  opportunities  for 
rallying,  if  broken ;  and  on  strengthening  his  wings  so  as  to 
insure  advantage  at  those  points ;  and  he  trusted  to  his  own 


MILTIADES.  307 

skill  and  to  his  soldiers'  discipline  for  the  improvement  of 
that  advantage  into  decisive  victory. 

In  this  order,  and  availing  himself  probably  of  the  ine- 
qualities of  the  ground,  so  as  to  conceal  his  preparations 
from  the  enemy  till  the  last  possible  moment,  Miltiades  drew 
up  the  eleven  thousand  infantry  whose  spears  were  to  decide 
this  crisis  in  the  struggle  between  the  European  and  the 
Asiatic  worlds.  The  sacrifices  by  which  the  favor  of  heaven 
was  sought,  and  its  will  consulted,  were  announced  to  show 
propitious  omens.  The  trumpet  sounded  for  action,  and 
chanting  the  hymn  of  battle,  the  little  army  bore  down  upon 
the  host  of  the  foe. 

Instead  of  advancing  at  the  usual  slow  pace  of  the  pha- 
lanx, Miltiades  brought  his  men  on  at  a  run.  They  were 
all  trained  in  the  exercise  of  the  palaestra,  so  that  there  was 
no  fear  of  their  ending  the  charge  in  breathless  exhaustion ; 
and  it  was  of  the  deepest  importance  for  him  to  traverse  as 
rapidly  as  possible  ihe  mile  or  so  of  level  ground  that  lay 
between  the  mountain  foot  and  the  Persian  outposts,  and  so 
to  get  his  troops  into  close  action  before  the  Asiatic  cavalry 
could  mount,  form  and  manoeuvre  against  him,  or  their 
archers  keep  him  long  under  fire,  and  before  the  enemy's 
generals  could  fairly  deploy  their  masses. 

"When  the  Persians,"  says  Herodotus,  usaw  the  Athe- 
nians running  down  on  them,  without  horse  or  bowmen,  and 
scanty  in  numbers,  they  thought  them  a  set  of  madmen 
rushing  upon  certain  destruction."  They  began,  however, 
to  prepare  to  receive  them,  and  the  Eastern  chiefs  arrayed, 
as  quickly  as  time  and  place  allowed,  the  varied  races  who 
sewed  in  their  motley  ranks.  Mountaineers  from  Hyrcania 
and  Afghanistan,  wild  horsemen  from  the  steppes  of  Khor- 
assan,  the  black  archers  of  Ethiopia,  swordsmen  from  the 
banks  of  the  Indus,  the  Oxus,  the  Euphrates  and  the  Nile, 
made  ready  against  the  enemies  of  the  Great  King.  But  no 
national  cause  inspired  them  except  the  division  of  native 
Persians ;  and  in  the  large  host  there  was  no  uniformity  of 
language,  creed,  race  or  military  system.  Still,  among  them 
there  were  many  gallant  men,  under  a  veteran  general ;  they 
were  familiarized  with  victory,  and  in  contemptuous  confi- 


308  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

dence,  their  infantry,  which  alone  had  time  to  form,  awaited 
the  Athenian  charge.  On  came  the  Greeks,  with  one  un- 
wavering line  of  leveled  spears,  against  which  the  light  targets, 
the  short  lances  and  cimeters  of  the  Orientals,  offered  weak 
defense.  The  front  rank  of  the  Asiatics  must  have  gone  down 
to  a  man  at  the  first  shock.  Still  they  recoiled  not,  but  strove, 
by  individual  gallantry  and  by  the  weight  of  numbers,  to 
make  up  for  the  disadvantages  of  weapons  and  tactics,  and  to 
bear  back  the  shallow  line  of  the  Europeans.  In  the  centre, 
where  the  native  Persians  and  the  Sacse  fought,  they  succeeded 
in  breaking  through  the  weakened  part  of  the  Athenian 
phalanx ;  and  the  tribes  led  by  Aristides  and  Themistocles 
were,  after  a  brave  resistance,  driven  back  over  the  plain,  and 
chased  by  the  Persians  up  the  valley  toward  the  inner  country. 
There  the  nature  of  the  ground  gave  the  opportunity  of  rally- 
ing and  renewing  the  struggle.  Meanwhile,  the  Greek  wings, 
where  Miltiades  had  concentrated  his  chief  strength,  had 
routed  the  Asiatics  opposed  to  them  ;  and  the  Athenian  and 
Plataean  officers,  instead  of  pursuing  the  fugitives,  kept  their 
troops  well  in  hand,  and,  wheeling  round,  they  formed  the 
two  wings  together.  Miltiades  instantly  led  them  against 
the  Persian  centre,  which  had  hitherto  been  triumphant,  but 
which  now  fell  back,  and  prepared  to  encounter  these  new 
and  unexpected  assailants.  Aristides  and  Themistocles  re- 
newed the  fight  with  their  reorganized  troops,  and  the  full 
force  of  the  Greeks  was  brought  into  close  action  with  the 
Persian  and  Sacian  divisions  of  the  enemy.  Datis'  veterans 
strove  hard  to  keep  their  ground,  and  evening  was  approaching 
before  the  stern  encounter  was  decided. 

But  the  Persians,  with  their  slight  wicker  shields,  desti- 
tute of  body-armor,  and  never  taught  by  training  to  keep  the 
even  front  and  act  with  the  regular  movement  of  the  Greek 
infantry,  fought  at  heavy  disadvantage  with  their  shorter  and 
feebler  weapons  against  the  compact  array  of  well-armed 
Athenian  and  Plataean  spearmen,  all  perfectly  drilled  to  per- 
form each  necessary  evolution  in  concert,  and  to  preserve  a 
uniform  and  unwavering  line  in  battle.  In  personal  courage 
and  in  bodily  activity  the  Persians  were  not  inferior  to  their 
adversaries.  Their  spirits  were  not  yet  cowed  by  the  recollec- 


MII/TIADBS.  309 

tion  of  former  defeats ;  and  they  lavished  their  lives  freely, 
rather  than  forfeit  the  fame  which  they  had  won  by  so  many 
victories.  While  their  rear  ranks  poured  an  incessant  shower 
of  arrows  over  the  heads  of  their  comrades,  the  foremost 
Persians  kept  rushing  forward,  sometimes  singly,  sometimes 
in  desperate  groups  of  twelve  or  ten  upon  the  projecting 
spears  of  the  Greeks,  striving  to  force  a  lane  into  the  phalanx, 
and  to  bring  their  cimeters  and  daggers  into  play.  But  the 
Greeks  felt  their  superiority,  and  though  the  fatigue  of  the 
long-continued  action  told  heavily  on  their  inferior  numbers, 
the  sight  of  the  carnage  that  they  dealt  upon  their  assailants 
nerved  them  to  fight  on  still  more  fiercely. 

At  last  the  previously  unvanquished  lords  of  Asia  turned 
their  backs  and  fled,  and  the  Greeks  followed,  striking  them 
down,  to  the  water's  edge,  where  the  invaders  were  now 
hastily  launching  their  galleys,  and  seeking  to  embark  and 
fly.  Flushed  with  success,  the  Athenians  attacked  and  strove 
to  fire  the  fleet.  But  here  the  Asiatics  resisted  desperately, 
and  the  principal  loss  sustained  by  the  Greeks  was  in  the 
assault  on  the  ships.  Here  fell  the  brave  War-ruler  Callim- 
achus,  the  General  Stesilaus,  and  other  Athenians  of  note. 
Seven  galleys  were  fired ;  but  the  Persians  succeeded  in  saving 
the  rest.  They  pushed  off  from  the  fatal  shore;  but  even  here 
the  skill  of  Datis  did  not  desert  him,  and  he  sailed  round  to 
the  western  coast  of  Attica,  in  hopes  to  find  the  city  unpro- 
tected, and  to  gain  possession  of  it  from  some  of  the  partisans 
of  Hippias.  Miltiades,  however,  saw  and  counteracted  his 
manoeuvre.  Leaving  Aristides,  and  the  troops  of  his  tribe,  to 
guard  the  spoil  and  the  slain,  the  Athenian  commander  led 
his  conquering  army  by  a  rapid  night-march  back  across  the 
country  to  Athens.  And  when  the  Persian  fleet  had  doubled 
the  Cape  of  Sunium  and  sailed  up  to  the  Athenian  harbor  in 
the  morning,  Datis  saw  arrayed  on  the  heights  above  the 
city  the  troops  before  whom  his  men  had  fled  on  the  preced- 
ing evening.  All  hope  of  further  conquest  in  Europe  for  the 
time  was  abandoned,  and  the  baffled  armada  returned  to  the 
Asiatic  coasts. 

The  number  of  the  Persian  dead  was  6400 ;  of  the  Athe- 
nians, 192.  The  number  of  the  Platseans  who  fell  is  not  men- 


310  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

tioned;  but,  as  they  fought  in  the  part  of  the  army  which  was 
not  broken,  it  cannot  have  been  large. 

The  apparent  disproportion  between  the  losses  of  the  two 
armies  is  not  surprising  when  we  remember  the  armor  of  the 
Greek  spearmen,  and  the  impossibility  of  heavy  slaughter 
being  inflicted  by  sword  or  lance  on  troops  so  armed,  as  long 
as  they  kept  firm  in  their  ranks. 

The  Athenian  slain  were  buried  on  the  field  of  battle. 
This  was  contrary  to  the  usual  custom,  according  to  which 
the  bones  of  all  who  fell  fighting  for  their  country  in  each 
year  were  deposited  in  a  public  sepulchre  in  the  suburb  of 
Athens  called  the  Cerameicus.  But  it  was  felt  that  a  distinc- 
tion ought  to  be  made  in  the  funeral  honors  paid  to  the  men 
of  Marathon,  even  as  their  merit  had  been  distinguished  over 
that  of  all  other  Athenians.  A  lofty  mound  was  raised  on  the 
plain  of  Marathon,  beneath  which  the  remains  of  the  men  of 
Athens  who  fell  in  the  battle  were  deposited.  Ten  columns 
were  erected  on  the  spot,  one  for  each  of  the  Athenian  tribes; 
and  on  the  monumental  column  of  each  tribe  were  graven  the 
names  of  those  of  its  members  whose  glory  it  was  to  have 
fallen  in  the  great  battle  of  liberation.  The  antiquarian 
Pausanias  read  those  names  there  six  hundred  years  after  the 
time  when  they  were  first  graven.  The  columns  have  long 
since  perished ;  but  the  mound  still  marks  the  spot  where  the 
noblest  heroes  of  antiquity  repose. — SIR  E.  S.  CREASY. 


'HE   classical   historians,  while   agreeing  in  a 
high  estimate  of  the  military  genius  of  Pau- 
sanias,  the  Spartan  general,  differ  in   their 
views   concerning    his   character  at  various 
periods  of  his  life,  and  also  in  regard  to  the 
motives  of  his  marchings  and  counter-march- 
ings   at   Platsea.      All   admit   that    his  last 
shifting  of   position    precipitated   the  final 
great  battle  that  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  the  Persian 
power  in  Europe  forever. 

Pausanias,  the  Spartan,  was  the  nephew  of  King  Leon- 
idas,  who  fell  at  Thermopylae,  and  during  the  minority  of  his 
successor,  was  his  guardian  and  acting  king.  Xerxes,  being 
utterly  defeated  in  the  sea  fight  at  Salamis,  returned  in  haste 
to  Asia,  but  left  his  general,  Mardonius,  in  Greece,  with  an 
army  exceeding  300,  ooo  men  to  effect  its  reduction.  During 
the  winter  while  this  army  remained  in  Thessaly,  Mardonius 
vainly  endeavored  to  win  the  leaders  of  the  Greeks,  and  espe- 
cially of  the  Athenians,  to  compliance  with  the  Persian 
king's  demands.  In  the  next'  spring,  479  B.C.,  he  moved 
southward  and  again  seized  and  burned  Athens.  The  Spar- 
tans, who  had  previously  refused  to  leave  the  Peloponnesus, 
now  issued  forth,  and  in  the  memorable  battle  of  Platsea, 
September  igth,  Mardonius  was  defeated  and  killed.  Pausa- 
nias showed  great  nobleness  of  mind  in  rejecting  a  proposal 
that  the  body  of  the  Persian  general  should  be  treated  with 
the  same  indignity  that  had  been  offered  to  Leonidas.  He 
proceeded,  however,  to  punish  the  internal  foes  of  Greece,  and 
obliged  the  Thebans  to  surrender  their  traitors,  whom  he 
executed.  His  share  of  the  Persian  spoils  at  Platsea,  one- 

3" 


312  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

tenth  of  the  whole,  made  him  very  wealthy  ;  and  the  effects 
of  his  great  victory  seem  to  have  inspired  him  with  ambi- 
tion and  arrogance.  He  assumed  to  himself  all  the  honors 
of  the  battle  ;  and  upon  a  golden  tripod,  which  he  presented 
to  the  Temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  he  put  an  inscription 
recording  only  his  own  name  as  the  victor. 

A  Greek  fleet  being  shortly  sent  to  drive  out  the  Persian 
garrisons  that  still  lingered  in  some  of  their  maritime  cities, 
the  command  -was  taken  by  Pausanias.  He  acted  with  such 
great  partiality  toward  the  Spartans,  and  with  such  arrogance 
to  the  leaders  of  the  other  Greek  contingents,  that  ultimately 
these  embraced  the  cause  and  followed  the  lead  of  Athens  and 
not  Sparta.  In  the  present  instance,  however,  Pausanias  was 
successful  in  capturing  Byzantium.  Some  of  the  Persians 
here  taken  were  of  royal  blood,  and  Pausanias  sent  them  to 
Xerxes  with  a  letter  proposing  a  private  alliance  with  the 
King  on  the  condition  of  being  made  ruler  of  Greece  as  his 
vassal.  Being  detected  in  part  of  this  negotiation,  he  was 
recalled  to  Sparta,  and  subjected  to  a  trial;  but,  as  sufficient 
evidence  was  lacking,  he  was  acquitted. 

Pausanias  now  threw  caution  to  the  winds,  adopted  the 
Persian  habit  and  manners,  and  indulged  in  luxurious 
excesses.  It  would  appear  that  his  mind  became  disordered 
from  a  tragical  incident.  He  married  a  Persian  bride,  but 
during  the  wedding-night  she  got  up  in  the  dark,  and  the 
noise  of  her  movements  waking  him,  he  fancied  an  assassin 
was  in  the  room,  and  starting  up  plunged  a  dagger  in  her 
breast.  The  discovery  of  the  fatal  error  distracted  him,  and 
from  that  time  he  imagined  "that  the  blood  of  his  Cleonice 
perpetually  demanded  vengeance. 

Pausanias  still  maintained  his  treasonable  correspondence 
with  the  Persian  court;  and  to  preserve  the  secret,  all  the 
messengers  were  killed  after  they  had  delivered  their  messages. 
It  is  said  he  in  vain  attempted  to  engage  Themistocles,  then 
an  exile,  to  concur  in  his  measures.  At  length  one  of  the 
messengers,  Argilius,  his  favorite,  becoming  suspicious 
through  the  non-appearance  of  the  former  messengers, 
unsealed  the  packet,  and  finding  a  direction  to  put  him  to 
death,  immediately  disclosed  the  matter  to  the  Spartan 


PAUSANIAS.  313 

Ephori.  In  order  to  obtain  fuller  proof  against  Pausanias,  the 
magistrates  directed  Argilius,  as  if  in  fear  of  his  life,  to  take 
refuge  in  the  Temple  of  Neptune  at  Tsenarus,  concealing  at 
the  same  time  a  witness  near  the  altar.  Pausanias,  hearing 
of  Argilius  having  sought  safety  in  the  temple,  repaired 
thither  to  ascertain  the  reason  of  his  action.  In  the  conver- 
sation that  ensued  the  Ephori  had  sufficient  evidence  against 
Pausanias,  who  fled  to  the  Temple  of  Athene.  In  order  not 
to  violate  the  sanctity  of  this  place,  they  tore  off  the  roof  and 
blocked  all  the  entrances.  When  he  had  died  with  hunger 
and  exposure,  his  body  was  allowed  to  be  interred  by  his 
friends.  In  such  a  wretched  manner  did  this  great  and 
vicious  man  terminate  his  days  (B.C.  474).  This  splendid  sol- 
dier and  superb  commander  might  have  reigned  immortal  in 
the  hearts  of  his  countrymen,  could  he  but  have  restrained 
his  ambition. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  PLATAIAI. 

(NOTE. — Sir  G.  W.  Cox  uses  in  this  narrative  a  mode  of  spelling  Greek 
names  more  close  to  the  original  than  that  which  is  common  in  English). 

The  story  of  Plataiai  brings  before  us  a  series  of  move- 
ments which  explain  themselves,  and  which  seem  to  be 
reported  with  tolerable  accuracy.  From  the  Corinthian  Isth- 
mus the  Spartans  with  their  Peloponnesian  allies  advanced  to 
Eleusis,  where  they  were  joined  by  the  forces  of  the  Athenians 
who  had  crossed  over  from  Salamis,  and  thence,  cheered  by 
favorable  omens,  resumed  their  march,  until  from  the  slopes 
of  Kithairon  they  looked  down  on  the  Persian  camp  near  the 
northern  bank  of  the  Asopos. 

Here,  then,  on  the  plain  beneath  the  mighty  mass  of 
Kithairon,  Mardonios  with  his  host,  it  is  said,  of  600,000 
men,  awaited  with  impatience  the  attack  which  he  trusted 
that  the  Greeks,  numbering  in  all  110,000,  would  begin.  If 
Persian  boastfulness  exaggerated  his  own  numbers,  those  of 
his  enemies  were  swollen  not  so  much  from  carelessness  of 
falsehood  as  from  the  desire  that  all  the  States  which  had  not 
Medized  should  be  represented  as  taking  part  in  the  final 
struggle  with  the  servants  of  the  Asiatic  despot.  But  what- 
ever their  numbers  may  have  been  when  Mardonios  threw  the 


314  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

die  for  battle,  they  were  less  formidable  when  they  first 
encamped  on  the  lower  slopes  of  Kithairon.  Still  no  time 
was  to  be  lost  in  dislodging  them  from  their  vantage-ground ; 
and  on  this  errand  the  whole  Persian  cavalry  was  dispatched 
under  Masistios,  a  leader  noted  for  his  bravery.  Riding  on  a 
golden-bitted  Nisaian  steed  magnificently  caparisoned,  Masis- 
tios led  his  horsemen  on ;  and  the  nature  of  the  ground  made 
their  attack  specially  felt  by  the  Megarians,  who  sent  a  mes- 
sage to  Pausanias  to  say  that,  unless  they  could  be  speedily 
supported,  they  must  give  way.  The  rigidity  of  Spartan  dis- 
cipline would  lead  us  to  suppose  that  Pausanias  issued  an 
order,  and  that  this  order  was  obeyed ;  but  instead  of  this  we 
have  the  mere  entreaty  for  the  help  of  volunteers.  All,  it  is 
said,  including,  it  would  seem,  the  Spartans,  held  back, 
although  the  Persian  horsemen  rode  up  and  reviled  them  as 
women ;  and  three  hundred  picked  Athenians  could  alone  be 
found  to  undertake  the  dangerous  task.  Aided  by  some  bow- 
men, they  moved  to  the  Megarian  ground,  where  presently 
the  horse  of  Masistios,  struck  by  an  arrow  in  its  side,  reared 
and  threw  its  rider.  Throwing  themselves  upon  him,  the 
Athenians  seized  his  horse ;  but  his  golden  breast-plate  pro- 
tected him  from  his  enemies  until  a  spear  was  thrust  into  his 
eye.  So  died  Masistios,  unseen  by  his  men,  who  at  the  time 
were  falling  back  to  make  ready  for  another  charge.  When 
on  halting  they  learned  their  loss,  with  a  fierce  cry  they  rushed 
back  to  recover  his  body,  of  which  for  a  little  while  they 
gained  possession ;  but  the  three  hundred  Athenians  were 
now  supported  by  the  main  body  of  their  countrymen,  and 
the  Persian  cavalry  was  definitely  beaten  back.  All  Boiotia, 
it  is  said,  resounded  with  the  Persian  wail  which  went  up 
for  the  loss  of  Masistios,  while  the  body  of  the  fallen 
general,  stretched  on  a  chariot,  was  carried  along  the  ranks 
of  the  Greeks  who  crowded  to  see  his  grand  and  beautiful 
form. 

.  To  these  the  death  of  Masistios  and  the  repulse  of  his  cav- 
alry brought  great  encouragement ;  and  they  resolved  to  move 
from  Erythrai  nearer  to  Plataiai,  as  a  position  far  better  both 
for  encamping  and  for  watering.  Their  road  led  them  by 
Hysiai  to  ground  stretching  from  the  Fountain  of  Gargaphia 


PAUSANIAS.  315 

to  the  shrine  of  the  hero  Androkrates,  and  broken  by  low  hills 
rising  from  the  plain. 

Although  the  two  armies  were  brought  thus  near  to  each 
other,  the  final  conflict  was  delayed  by  the  omens  which  were 
interpreted  by  the  soothsayers  on  either  side  as  unfavorable  to 
the  aggressor.  But  if  a  pitched  battle  was  not  to  be  thought 
of,  Timagenidas,  the  Theban,  warned  Mardonios  against 
wasting  more  time  in  addition  to  the  eight  days  which  had 
already  passed.  There  were  other  things  which  might  safely 
be  undertaken.  Every  day  the  Greeks  were  receiving  fresh 
convoys  through  the  passes  of  Kithairon  ;  and  it  was  easy  by 
occupying  these  passes  to  enrich  the  Persians  and  starve  their 
enemies.  His  advice  was  promptly  acted  upon.  Night  had 
no  sooner  set  in  than  the  Persian  cavalry  were  dispatched  to 
the  pass  of  the  Oak  Heads ;  and  there  500  beasts  laden  with 
corn  were  cut  off  with  the  men  who  had  brought  them  from 
the  Peloponnesos. 

Two  days  more  passed  by,  each  adding  to  the  numbers  of 
the  Greeks.  On  the  morning  of  the  eleventh,  Mardonios, 
wearied  out  with  the  delay,  consulted  Artabazos,  who  advised 
him,  it  is  said,  to  fall  back  on  Thebes,  and  there  to  trust 
rather  to  money  than  to  men.  In  open  battle,  he  urged,  they 
were  no  match  for  their  enemies  ;  but  not  a  Greek  was  to  be 
found  who  would  not  sell  his  freedom  for  money,  and  Persian 
gold,  freely  scattered  among  the  chief  men  of  all  the  non- 
Medizing  cities,  would  soon  make  them  hearty  in  the  Persian 
cause.  It  is  possible,  of  course,  that  Artabazos  may  have  had 
other  reasons  for  differing  with  Mardonios ;  but  the  latter  was 
certainly  justified  in  depending  on  the  bravery  of  his  country- 
men and  in  deploring  the  inaction  which  was  daily  increasing 
the  number  and  strength  of  his  enemies. 

On  the  morning  of  the  eleventh  day  the  battle  of  Plataiai 
may  be  said  practically  to  have  begun,  although  the  traditional 
narrative  confines  it  to  the  day  on  which  the  infantry  of  the 
Persians  came  to  close  combat  with  the  Hellenic  hoplites. 
During  the  whole  of  the  day  preceding  this  final  conflict,  the 
Greek  army  was  terribly  pressed  by  constant  charges  of  the 
Persian  cavalry ;  and  early  in  the  day  it  became  clear  to  the 
confederate  generals  that  a  change  of  position  was  indis- 


316  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

pensably  necessary.  The  stream  of  Asopos,  in  front  of  the 
Greeks,  had  all  along  been  useless  for  watering,  as  it  was 
within  range  of  the  Persian  bowmen.  The  whole  army  was 
forced,  therefore,  to  obtain  its  supplies  from  the  Fountain  or 
stream  of  Gargaphia,  which  is  said  by  Herodotus  to  have  been 
two  miles  and  a  half  distant  from  the  town  of  Plataiai.  This 
fountain  was  now  completely  fouled  and  choked  up  by  the 
trampling  of  the  Persian  horses  :  but  about  half-way  between 
Gargaphia  and  Plataiai  was  a  spot  of  ground  called  the  Island, 
as  lying  between  two  channels,  into  which  for  a  short  space 
the  little  stream  of  Oeroe  is  divided  in  its  descent  from 
Kithairon.  The  ground  thus  enclosed  between  the  points 
where  the  waters  divided  and  again  met  was  barely  half  a 
mile  in  width,  and  about  a  mile  and  a  half  in  length.  Here, 
however,  they  would  have  not  only  an  abundant  supply  of 
water,  for  the  Persian  cavalry  could  not  reach  the  channel  in 
their  rear,  but  they  would  be  protected  from  their  attacks  by 
the  stream  in  front  To  this  spot,  therefore,  the  generals  re- 
solved that  the  army  should  be  transferred  on  the  coming 
night:  but,  whether  from  confusion  or  from  fear,  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  allies,  when  the  time  for  retreat  came,  fell  back  not 
on  this  so-called  island,  but  on  Plataiai  itself,  about  a  mile 
and  a  half  further  from  the  Asopos,  and  took  up  their  position 
by  the  Temple  of  Here.  Seeing  these  in  retreat  (and  as  he 
supposed,  for  the  Island),  Pausanias  gave  the  order  to  the 
Spartans  also :  but  he  encountered  an  unexpected  opposition 
from  Amompharetos,  a  captain.  This  officer  complained  that, 
not  having  been  summoned  to  the  previous  council,  he  was 
now  commanded  to  retreat,  not  merely  against  his  better 
judgment,  but  in  violation  of  duty,  which  forbade  retreat  to 
all  Spartans  under  any  circumstances. 

With  this  obstacle  to  retreat,  it  became  impossible  for 
Pausanias  to  carry  out  the  decision  of  the  council ;  and  the 
Athenians,  beginning  to  suspect,  it  would  seem,  that  Spartan 
vacillation  might  end  in  open  Medism,  sent  a  herald  to  ascer- 
tain the  state  of  affairs.  He  found  the  Spartan  leaders  in  hot 
dispute  with  Amompharetos,  who,  taking  up  a  huge  stone 
with  both  hands,  placed  it  at  the  feet  of  Pausanias  and  said 
that  thus  he  gave  his  vote  against  the  dastardly  proposal  to 


PAUSANIAS.  317 

turn  their  backs  upon  the  e'nemy.  Having  bestowed  on  him 
the  epithet  of  madman,  Pausanias  turned  to  the  Athenian 
messenger,  and  bidding  him  to  report  to  Aristeides  how  mat- 
ters stood,  urged  the  immediate  union  of  the  Athenian  with 
the  Spartan  forces.  Amidst  these  disputes  the  night  had 
passed  away ;  and  the  sky  was  already  lit  with  the  dawn, 
when  Pausanias,  wearied  out  with  the  folly  of  Amompharetos, 
gave  the  order  for  retreat.  The  Spartans  immediately  fell 
back,  keeping  as  near  as  they  could  to  the  heights  of  Kithairon, 
in  order  to  avoid  the  attacks  of  the  Persian  horsemen,  while 
the  Athenians,  less  cautious  or  less  timid,  moved  along  the 
plain.  Having  gone  a  mile  and  a  half,  they  halted  to  see 
whether  Amompharetos  would  follow.  The  departure  of  the 
Spartans  and  Tegeatans  had  soon  convinced  him  that  he  could 
do  but  little  good  by  imitating  the  example  of  Leonidas  ;  and 
his  company  accordingly  joined  the  main  body. 

But  their  retreat  had  now  become  known  in  the  Persian 
camp ;  and  the  Persian  cavalry  at  once  advanced  to  harass 
them  as  they  had  done  the  day  before.  Hurriedly  crossing 
the  Asopos,  Mardonios  hastened  with  his  Persians  towards 
the  higher  ground  where  the  Spartan  troops  might  be  seen 
winding  along  under  the  hillside,  for  from  the  river's  banks 
he  could  not  catch  sight  of  the  Athenians,  who  were  hidden 
among  the  low  hills  which  rose  from  the  level  plain.  Without 
order  or  discipline,  the  hordes  of  the  Persian  subject  tribes 
rushed  after  him,  as  though  nothing  more  remained  for  them 
to  do  beyond  the  butchering  of  unresisting  fugitives.  The 
last  momentous  strife  was  now  begun.  Hard  pressed  by  the 
Persian  horsemen,  Pausanias  sent  to  beg  instant  succor  from 
the  Athenians  on  the  lower  ground.  But  the  attack  of  the 
Greeks  in  the  Persian  army,  who  now  flung  themselves  on  the 
Athenians,  rendered  this  impossible.  To  the  Spartans  and 
Tegeatans,  thus  cut  off  from  their  allies,  it  was  a  moment  of 
supreme  distress.  Fifty-three  thousand  in  all,  they  were 
opposed  to  the  overwhelming  numbers  of  Mardonios  ;  and  the 
sacrifices  even  now  forbade  any  action  except  in  the  way 
of  self-defence.  This  merely  passive  resistance  enabled  the 
Persians  to  make  a  rampart  of  their  wicker-work  shields, 
from  behind  which  they  shot  their  arrows  with  deadly  effect 


318  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

At  last  Pausanias,  looking  in  agony  towards  the  temple  of 
Here,  besought  the  Queen  of  Heaven  not  to  abandon  them 
utterly.  Scarcely  had  his  prayer  been  offered,  when  the 
sacrifices  were  reported  to  be  favorable;  and  the  charge  of  the 
Tegeatans  was  followed  by  the  onset  of  the  Spartans.  After 
a  fierce  fight  the  hedge  of  shields  was  thrown  down,  and  the 
defeat  of  the  barbarian  host  virtually  ensured.  The  Persians 
fought  with  almost  more  than  Hellenic  heroism.  Coming  to 
close  quarters,  they  seized  the  spears  of  their  enemies,  and 
broke  off  their  heads;  but  they  wore  no  body-armor,  and  they 
had  no  discipline.  Rushing  forward  singly  or  in  small  groups, 
they  were  borne  down  in  the  crush  and  killed.  Still  they 
were  not  dismayed;  and  the  battle  raged  most  fiercely  on  the 
spot  where  Mardonios,  on  his  white  war-horse,  fought  with  the 
flower  of  his  troops.  But  at  length  Mardonios  was  slain, 
and  when  his  chosen  guards  had  fallen  round  him  the  issue 
was  no  longer  doubtful.  The  linen  tunics  of  the  Persian 
soldiers  were  of  no  avail  in  a  conflict  with  brazen-coated  hop- 
lites.  With  the  utmost  speed  the  defeated  barbarians  made 
their  way  to  their  fortified  camp,  and  took  refuge  behind  its 
wooden  walls. 

Artabazos  had  awaited  the  battle  with  very  definite  resolu- 
tions. He  despised,  with  good  reason,  the  military  arrange- 
ments of  Mardonios;  and  he  had  no  intention  of  allowing 
himself  and  his  men  to  be  slaughtered  if  Mardonios  should, 
as  he  foreboded,  lose  the  day.  His  troops,  therefore, — the 
forty  thousand  still  remaining  to  him  of  the  six  myriads  who 
guarded  Xerxes  on  his  retreat  to  the  Hellespont, — received 
strict  orders  to  look  only  to  him  and  to  follow  his  movements 
with  the  utmost  promptness;  and  no  sooner  had  the  battle 
begun,  it  is  said,  than,  inviting  his  men  verbally  to  follow 
him  into  it,  he  led  them  from  the  field.  The  flight  of  the 
Persians  soon  showed  him  that  the  day  was  lost;  and  putting 
spurs  to  his  horse  he  hurried  away  with  all  speed  into  Phokis. 
Without  pausing  to  answer  the  questions  of  the  people,  he 
rode  on  into  Thessaly,  and  through  Makedonia  and  Thrace. 
He  brought  the  bulk  of  his  troops  safely  to  Byzantion,  and 
thence  crossed  over  with  them  into  Asia. 

One  body  of  men  alone  held  their  ground  when,  on  the 


PAUSANIAS. 


319 


death  of  Mardonios  and  the  defeat  of  his  Persians,  all  the  rest 
of  his  army  fled  in  utter  confusion.  These  were  the  Theban 
oligarchs.  They  felt,  doubtless,  that  they  had  gone  too  far  to 
leave  any  hope  of  making  their  peace  with  the  Spartans  and 
their  allies,  and  we  may  do  them  the  justice  to  say  that  with- 
out the  tyranny  which  the  victory  of  Xerxes  might  have 
enabled  them  to  exercise,  life  was  to  them  scarcely  worth  the 
living  for.  Three  hundred  of  these  patricians  fell  fighting  on 
the  field.  The  rest  made  their  way  as  best  they  could  to 
Thebes. 

If  the  Persians  on  finding  themselves  within  their  fortified 
camp  hoped  that  its  wooden  walls  would  keep  out  the  enemy, 
they  were  soon  to  be  disappointed.  To  the  Spartans,  whose 
incompetence  in  all  siege  operations  was  notorious,  they 
opposed  an  effectual  barrier  ;  but  Athenian  skill  and  resolu- 
tion effected  a  breach  after  a  terrible  struggle.  Headed  by 
the  Tegeatans,  the  allies  burst  like  a  deluge  into  the  incamp- 
ment ;  and  the  Persians,  losing  all  heart,  sought  wildly  to 
hide  themselves  like  deer  flying  from  lions.  Then  followed  a 
carnage  so  fearful  that  of  260,000  men  not  3,000,  it  is  said, 
remained  alive.  On  the  side  of  the  Greeks  we  are  told  that 
only  91  Spartan  citizens  had  fallen,  while  the  Tegeatans  lost 
only  1 6,  and  the  Athenians  only  52. — SIR  G.  W.  Cox. 


LOUIS  XV.,  King  of  France,  was  the 
great-grandson  and  immediate  suc- 
cessor of  Louis  XIV.  He  was  born 
at  Versailles  on  February  15,  1710, 
being  the  third  son  of  Louis,  Duke 
of  Burgundy.  His  father  became 
Dauphin  in  1711,  and  died  in  the 
next  year.  The  death  of  Louis 
XIV.,  in  1715,  after  the  unparalleled 
reign  of  seventy-two  years,  left  this 
child,  five  years  old,  the  legal  King 
of  France.  He  was  then  of  feeble 

constitution,  and  appeared  unlikely  to  attain  manhood.  A 
Council  of  Regency  was  appointed,  of  which  the  Duke  of 
Orleans  was  named  president  and  entrusted  with  the  guard- 
ianship arid  education  of  the  youthful  sovereign.  But  the 
whims  and  sports  of  the  royal  boy  were  little  interfered  with 
by  his  obsequious  tutors  and  attendants. 

The  early  victories,  as  well  as  the  later  defeats  of  Louis 
XIV.,  had  been  frightfully  expensive,  and  when  the  Grand 
Monarch  passed  away,  the  debts  thus  incurred  pressed  with 
redoubled  force  on  the  impoverished  people  of  France.  Dur- 
ing the  Regency,  though  the  splendor  of  the  court  was 
maintained,  the  financial  condition  of  France  became  a  per- 
fect chaos.  All  available  capital  was  drawn  from  trade  and 
agriculture  and  pocketed  by  public  officials  and  financial 
cliques,  or  squandered  in  wasteful  shows  by  the  court.  To 
provide  a  circulating  medium  and  in  some  measure  cover  the 
deficiency,  paper-money  was  issued,  and  the  national  debt 
was  augmented  to  625,000,000  francs. 
320 


LOUIS  XV.  321 

Louis  XV.  was  declared  to  have  attained  his  legal  majority 
on  the  thirteenth  anniversary  of  his  birth.  The  Duke  of 
Orleans  now  became  President  of  the  Council  of  State,  which 
included  also  the  Duke  of  Bourbon,  Cardinal  Dubois,  and 
Fleury,  Bishop  of  Frejus,  who  had  been  the  King's  tutor. 
Louis  had  been  engaged  in  1721  to  his  cousin,  a  Spanish 
Princess;  but  she  was  now  sent  back  to  Spain.  On  Sep- 
tember 5,  1725,  he  was  married  at  Fontainebleau,  to  Maria 
Leszczynski,  daughter  of  Stanislaus,  the  dethroned  King  of 
Poland,  who  was  her  husband's  senior  by  seven  years.  This 
union  continued  to  subsist,  after  a  fashion,  until  the  Queen's 
death,  in  1768.  Fleury  was  the  chief  administrator  of  public 
affairs,  and  under  his  direction  France  repaired  her  losses  and 
extended  her  commerce.  Louis  willingly  abandoned  to  his 
minister  the  entire  burden  of  state  as  long  as  his  eager  pur- 
suit of  private  pleasure  was  undisturbed,  and  the  Minister  as 
willingly  complied  with  these  terms. 

Louis'  father-in-law,  Stanislaus,  being  again  proclaimed 
King  of  Poland,  called  on  his  son-in-law  for  aid.  When 
Fleury  granted  him  but  1,500  men  and  3,000,000  livres,  this 
help  proved  insufficient,  and  he  was  once  more  driven  from 
Warsaw.  The  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  also  involved 
France  in  troubles  which  ended  in  serious  disaster.  Fleury 
died  in  his  ninetieth  year,  in  January,  1743.  Louis,  now 
thirty-three  years  of  age,  affected  to  take  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment into  his  own  hands.  But  his  character  and  habits 
altogether  unfitted  him  for  the  task.  The  influence  which 
really  predominated  in  the  State  was  that  of  the  King's  mis- 
tress, the  Duchesse  de  Chateauroux,  the  youngest  of  four 
sisters  of  the  family  of  Nesle,  who  had  successively  yielded 
to  his  licentious  passion.  She  was  a  woman  of  talent,  spirit 
and  ambition,  and  exerted  herself  to  rouse  her  royal  paramour 
from  his  constitutional  indolence  and  torpor.  But  the  King 
hated  business,  and  nothing  wearied  him  so  much  as  an  inter- 
view with  a  minister  or  a  dispatch  from  a  general. 

In  course  of  time  the  Duchesse  de  Chateauroux  was  dis- 
placed by  the  more  celebrated  Marquise  de  Pompadour,  who 
was  really  a  great  historic  personage.  Yet  she  was  of  the 
humblest  origin.  Her  father  had  been  butcher  to  the  In- 

21 


322  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

valides,  and  she  bribed  the  Princess  Conti  to  present  her  at 
court.  She  won  the  royal  fancy,  and  reigned  twenty  years, 
losing  her  power  only  by  death.  She  identified  herself  with 
the  fall  of  the  Jesuits  in  France,  the  triumphs  of  so-called 
philosophers  and  economists,  the  disgrace  of  ministers,  and 
the  most  extravagant  prodigality  that  ever  scandalized  a 
nation.  Louis  XV.  was  almost  wholly  directed  by  this  in- 
famous favorite.  She  named  and  removed  the  controllers- 
general  at  her  pleasure,  and  she  herself  received  annually 
1,500,000  livres.  Those  who  incurred  her  displeasure  were 
almost  sure  of  being  banished  from  the  kingdom,  or  perhaps 
sentenced  by  lettres  de  cachet  to  a  living  burial  in  the  dreary 
cells  of  the  Bastille. 

In  1754  France  engaged  in  a  war  against  England,  in 
which  America  was  a  principal  scene  of  conflict.  In  this 
struggle  Canada  was  lost.  On  the  Continent  of  Europe 
France  also  became  involved  in  the  celebrated  Seven  Years' 
War,  siding  with  Austria  against  Prussia.  But  these  foreign 
wars,  with  all  their  consequent  troubles  and  burdens,  were 
not  allowed  to  disturb  the  round  of  pleasure  at  the  court. 
The  evil  day  of  reckoning  was  deferred  beyond  the  reign 
of  Louis  XV. 

On  the  death  of  Madame  de  Pompadour,  Louis  appeared 
to  be  profoundly  affected.  But  not  more  than  a  year  elapsed 
before  he  resumed  his  habits  of  profligacy.  A  simple  pea- 
sant's child,  who  peddled  haberdashery  through  the  streets  of 
Paris,  entered,  under  the  name  of  Mademoiselle  Ran^on,  the 
millinery  shop  of  one  M.  Mabille.  Here  she  attracted  the 
notice  of  Count  Jean  Du  Barry,  and  soon  became  his  mistress. 
The  King  heard  of  her  charms  and  determined  to  raise  her  to 
a  loftier  station.  Count  Jean,  being  a  married  man,  could 
not  properly  assist  the  King's  design,  who  thought  that  a 
demoiselle  could  not  decently  fulfil  the  function  of  a  royal 
mistress.  But  for  a  handsome  consideration,  a  nominal  hus- 
band was  found  in  Count  William  Du  Barry,  Jean's  brother. 
This  comedy-marriage  was  celebrated  September  ist,  1768, 
and  Madame  Du  Barry  was  duly  presented  to  her  royal  lover. 
In  the  next  year  he  settled  on  her  a  life  annuity  of  100,000 
livres  to  be  paid  by  the  City  of  Paris,  and  a  pension  of  10,000 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 

ian;;,  cau. 


LOUIS  XV. AND   U.ME.  DU BJZKKT. 


LOUIS  XV. 


323 


livres  to  be  paid  by  the  States  of  Burgundy.  Her  political 
power  was  shown  by  her  securing  the  downfall  of  the  Due  de 
Choiseul ;  yet  for  the  most  part  she  abstained  from  meddling 
in  affairs  of  state,  being  thus  strongly  contrasted  with  her 
great  predecessor.  Devoid  of  hatred,  ambition  and  calcula- 
tion, Du  Barry  sought  only  to  occupy  herself  with  her  toilettes 
and  her  furniture. 

The  closing  years  of  Louis  XV.  were  destitute  of  striking 
events.  The  King  was  enslaved  by  his  vices  and  by  those 
who  pandered  to  them.  He  would  not  act  the  king,  nor  the 
man.  Seeing  the  approaching  dangers,  yet  feeling  his  im- 
potence to  dispel  them,  he  affected  levity,  and  exclaimed  to 
his  courtiers:  "Apres  nous  le  deluge,"  a  prediction  which 
testifies  to  greater  sagacity  than  he  has  usually  been  credited 
with.  His  career  of  self-abandonment  continued  to  the  last, 
even  after  satiety  and  ennui  had  deprived  him  of  appetite. 
Deaf,  incapable  of  being  amused,  prematurely  worn  out, 
hated  and  despised  by  the  whole  nation,  Louis  XV.  died  of 
small-pox  at  the  age  of  sixty-four,  on  the  loth  of  May,  1774. 
His  remains  were  hastily  consigned,  without  pomp,  to  the 
Cathedral  of  St.  Denis.  His  funeral  was  greeted  as  a  festival 
by  the  people.  Nearly  twenty  years  later,  among  the  thou- 
sands butchered  in  the  Reign  of  Terror  in  1793,  was  the 
notorious  Madame  Du  Barry. 

DEATH  OF  Louis  XV. 

President  Henault,  remarking  on  royal  Surnames  of  Honor 
how  difficult  it  often  is  to  ascertain  not  only  why,  but  even 
when,  they  were  conferred,  takes  occasion,  in  his  sleek  official 
way,  to  make  a  philosophical  reflection.  "The  Surname  of 
Bien-aime  (Well -beloved),"  says  he, " which  Louis  XV.  bears, 
will  not  leave  posterity  in  the  same  doubt.  This  Prince,  in 
the  year  1744,  while  hastening  from  one  end  of  his  kingdom 
to  the  other,  and  suspending  his  conquests  in  Flanders  that 
he  might  fly  to  the  assistance  of  Alsace,  was  arrested  at  Metz 
by  a  malady  which  threatened  to  cut  short  his  days.  At  the 
news  of  this,  Paris,  all  in  terror,  seemed  a  city  taken  by  storm: 
the  churches  resounded  with  supplications  and  groans  ;  the 
prayers  of  priests  and  people  were  every  moment  interrupted 


324  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

by  their  sobs  :  and  it  was  from  an  interest  so  dear  and  tender 
that  this  Surname  of  Bien-aime  fashioned  itself, — a  title 
higher  still  than  all  the  rest  which  this  great  Prince  has 
earned. ' ' 

So  stands  it  written ;  in  lasting  memorial  of  that  year 
1744.  Thirty  other  years  have  come  and  gone;  and  "this 
great  Prince"  again  lies  sick;  but  in  how  altered  circum- 
stances now !  Churches  resound  not  with  excessive  groan- 
ings  ;  Paris  is  stoically  calm :  sobs  interrupt  no  prayers,  for 
indeed  none  are  offered ;  except  Priests'  Litanies,  read  or 
chanted  at  fixed  money-rate  per  hour,  which  are  not  liable  to 
interruption.  The  shepherd  of  the  people  has  been  carried 
home  from  Little  Trianon,  heavy  of  heart,  and  been  put  to 
bed  in  his  own  Chateau  of  Versailles  :  the  flock  knows  it,  and 
heeds  it  not.  At  most,  in  the  immeasurable  tide  of  French 
Speech  (which  ceases  not  day  after  day,  and  only  ebbs  towards 
the  short  hours  of  night),  may  this  of  the  royal  sickness 
emerge  from  time  to  time  as  an  article  of  news.  Bets  are 
doubtless  depending ;  nay,  some  people  "express  themselves 
loudly  on  the  streets. ' '  But  for  the  rest,  on  green  field  and 
steepled  city,  the  May  sun  shines  out,  the  May  evening  fades; 
and  men  ply  their  useful  or  useless  business  as  if  no  Louis  lay 
in  danger. 

Dame  Du  Barry,  indeed,  might  pray,  if  she  had  a  talent 
for  it ;  Duke  d'  Aiguillon  too,  Maupeou  and  the  Parlement 
Maupeou:  these,  as  they  sit  in  their  high  places,  with  France 
harnessed  under  their  feet,  know  well  on  what  basis  they 
continue  there.  Look  to  it,  D' Aiguillon;  sharply  as  thou 
didst,  from  the  Mill  of  St.  Cast,  on  Quiberon  and  the  invading 
English  ;  thou,  "  covered  if  not  with  glory,  yet  with  meal  !  " 
Fortune  was  ever  accounted  inconstant ;  and  each  dog  has  but 
his  day. 

Forlorn  enough  languished  Duke  d' Aiguillon,  some  years 
ago ;  covered,  as  we  said,  with  meal ;  nay,  with  worse.  For 
La  Chalotais,  the  Breton  Parlementeer,  accused  him  not  only 
of  poltroonery  and  tyranny,  but  even  of  concussion  (official 
plunder  of  money) ;  which  accusations  it  was  easier  to  get 
"quashed"  by  backstairs  Influences  than  to  get  answered: 
neither  could  the  thoughts,  or  even  the  tongues,  of  men  be 


LOUIS  xv.  325 

tied.  Thus,  under  disastrous  eclipse,  had  this  grand-nephew 
of  the  great  Richelieu  to  glide  about ;  unworshiped  by  the 
world ;  resolute  Choiseul,  the  abrupt,  proud  man,  disdaining 
him,  or  even  forgetting  him.  Little  prospect  but  to  glide 
into  Gascony,  to  rebuild  Chateaus  there,  and  die  inglorious 
killing  game  !  However,  in  the  year  1770,  a  certain  young 
soldier,  Dumouriez  by  name,  returning  from  Corsica,  could 
see  ' '  with  sorrow,  at  Compiegne,  the  old  King  of  France,  on 
foot,  with  doffed  hat,  in  sight  of  his  army,  at  the  side  of  a 
magnificent  phaeton,  doing  homage  to  the — Du  Barry." 

Much  lay  therein !  Thereby,  for  one  thing,  could 
D'Aiguillon  postpone  the  rebuilding  of  his  Chateau,  and 
rebuild  his  fortunes  first.  For  stout  Choiseul  would  discern 
in  the  Du  Barry  nothing  but  a  wonderfully  dizened  Scarlet- 
woman  ;  and  go  on  his  way  as  if  she  were  not.  Intolerable : 
the  source  of  sighs,  tears,  of  pettings  and  poutings ;  which 
would  not  end  till  "France"  (La  France,  as  she  named  her 
royal  valet)  finally  mustered  heart  to  see  Choiseul ;  and  with 
that  "quivering  in  the  chin"  natural  in  such  case,  faltered 
out  a  dismissal :  dismissal  of  his  last  substantial  man,  but 
pacification  of  his  scarlet-woman.  Thus  D'Aiguillon  rose 
again,  and  culminated.  And  with  him  there  rose  Maupeou, 
the  banisher  of  Parlements  ;  who  plants  you  a  refractory 
President  "at  Croe  in  Combrailles  on  the  top  of  steep  rocks, 
inaccessible  except  by  litters,"  there  to  consider  himself. 
Likewise  there  rose  Abbe  Terray,  dissolute  Financier,  paying 
eight  pence  in  the  shilling, — so  that  wits  exclaim  in  some 
press  at  the  playhouse,  "Where  is  Abbe  Terray,  that  he 
might  reduce  us  to  two-thirds!"  And  so  have  these  indi- 
viduals (verily  by  black-art)  built  them  a  Domdaniel,  or  en- 
chanted Dubarrydom ;  call  it  an  Armida-Palace,  where  they 
dwell  pleasantly  ;  Chancellor  Maupeou  "playing  blind-man's- 
buff"  with  the  scarlet  Enchantress;  or  gallantly  presenting 
her  with  dwarf  Negroes ; — and  a  Most  Christian  King  has 
unspeakable  peace  within  doors,  whatever  he  may  have 
without.  "My  Chancellor  is  a  scoundrel;  but  I  cannot  do 
without  him." 

Beautiful  Armida-Palace,  where  the  inmates  live  enchanted 
lives ;  lapped  in  soft  music  of  adulation ;  waited  on  by  the 


326  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

splendors  of  the  world ; — which  nevertheless  hangs  won- 
drously  as  by  a  single  hair.  Should  the  Most  Christian  King 
die ;  or  even  get  seriously  afraid  of  dying !  For,  alas,  had 
not  the  fair,  haughty  Chateauroux  to  fly,  with  wet  cheeks  and 
flaming  heart,  from  that  Fever-scene  at  Metz,  long  since ; 
driven  forth  by  sour  shavelings?  She  hardly  returned,  when 
fever  and  shavelings  were  both  swept  into  the  background. 
Pompadour  too,  when  Damiens  wounded  Royalty  "slightly, 
under  the  fifth  rib, ' '  and  our  drive  to  Trianon  went  off  futile, 
in  shrieks  and  madly  shaken  torches, — had  to  pack,  and  be 
in  readiness ;  yet  did  not  go,  the  wound  not  proving  poisoned. 
For  his  Majesty  has  religious  faith :  believes,  at  least  in  a 
Devil.  And  now  a  third  peril ;  and  who  knows  what  may  be 
in  it!  For  the  Doctors  look  grave;  ask  privily,  If  his 
Majesty  had  not  the  small-pox  long  ago  ? — and  doubt  it  may 
have  been  a  false  kind.  Yes,  Maupeou,  pucker  those  sinister 
brows  of  thine,  and  peer  out  on  it  with  thy  malign  rat-eyes  : 
it  is  a  questionable  case.  Sure  only  that  man  is  mortal ;  that 
with  the  life  of  one  mortal  snaps  irrevocably  the  wonderfulest 
talisman,  and  all  Dubarrydom  rushes  off,  with  tumult,  into 
infinite  Space ;  and  ye,  as  subterranean  Apparitions  are  wont, 
vanish  utterly, — leaving  only  a  smell  of  sulphur ! 

These,  and  what  holds  of  these,  may  pray, — to  Beelzebub, 
or  whoever  will  hear  them.  But  from  the  rest  of  France 
there  comes,  as  was  said,  no  prayer ;  or  one  of  an  opposite 
character,  "expressed  openly  in  the  streets."  Chateau  or 
Hotel,  where  an  enlightened  Philosophism  scrutinizes  many 
things,  is  not  given  to  prayer :  neither  are  Rossbach  victories, 
Terray  Finances,  nor,  say  only  ' '  sixty  thousand  Lettres-de- 
Cachet"  (which  is  Maupeou' s  share),  persuasives  towards 
that  O  Renault !  Prayers?  From  a  France  smitten  (by 
black-art)  with  plague  after  plague,  and  lying  now,  in  shame 
and  pain,  with  a  Harlot's  foot  on  his  neck,  what  prayer  can 
come? 

Dame  Du  Barry  issues  from  the  sick-room,  with  perceptible 
' '  trouble  in  her  visage. "  It  is  the  fourth  evening  of  May, 
year  of  Grace,  1774.  Such  a  whispering  in  the  CEil-de-Boeuf ! 
Is  he  dying,  then?  What  can  be  said  is,  that  Du  Barry  seems 
making  up  her  packages ;  she  sails  weeping  through  her  gilt 


LOUIS  XV.  327 

boudoirs,  as  if  taking  leave.  D'Aiguillon  and  Company  are 
near  their  last  card ;  nevertheless  they  will  not  yet  throw  up 
the  game.  But  as  for  the  sacramental  controversy,  it  is  as 
good  as  settled  without  being  mentioned ;  I^ouis  sends  for  his 
Abbe  Moudon  in  the  course  of  next  night ;  is  confessed  by 
him,  some  say  for  the  space  of  "seventeen  minutes,"  and 
demands  the  sacraments  of  his  own  accord. 

Nay  already,  in  the  afternoon,  behold  is  not  this  your  Sor- 
ceress Du  Barry  with  the  handkerchief  at  her  eyes,  mounting 
D' Aiguillon's  chariot ;  rolling  off  in  his  Duchess'  consolatory 
arms?  She  is  gone:  and  her  place  knows  her  no  more. 
Vanish,  false  Sorceress,  into  Space!  Needless  to  hover  at 
neighboring  Ruel ;  for  thy  day  is  done.  Shut  are  the  royal 
palace-gates  forevermore ;  hardly  in  coming  years  shalt  thou, 
under  cloud  of  night,  descend  once,  in  black  domino,  like  a 
black  night-bird,  and  disturb  the  fair  Antoinette's  music-party 
in  the  Park ;  all  Birds  of  Paradise  flying  from  thee,  and 
musical  windpipes  growing  mute.  Thou  unclean,  yet  unma- 
lignant,  not  unpitiable  thing!  What  a  course  was  thine: 
from  that  first  truckle-bed  (in  Joan  of  Arc's  country)  where 
thy  mother  bore  thee,  with  tears,  to  an  unnamed  father :  for- 
ward, through  lowest  subterranean  depths,  and  over  highest 
sunlit  heights,  of  Harlotdom  and  Rascaldom — to  the  guillo- 
tine-axe, which  shears  away  thy  vainly  whimpering  head ! 
Rest  there  uncursed ;  only  buried  and  abolished :  what  else 
befitted  thee? 

This  tenth  May  day  falls  into  the  loathsome  sick-bed;  but 
dull,  unnoticed  there:  for  they  that  look  out  of  the  windows 
are  quite  darkened;  the  cistern-wheel  moves  discordant  on  its 
axis ;  Life,  like  a  spent  steed,  is  panting  towards  the  goal.  In 
their  remote  apartments,  Dauphin  and  Dauphiness  stand  road- 
ready;  all  grooms  and  equerries  booted  and  spurred:  waiting 
for  some  signal  to  escape  the  house  of  pestilence.  And,  hark! 
across  the  CEil-de-Bceuf,  what  sound  is  that ;  sound  "  terrible 
and  absolutely  like  thunder"?  It  is  the  rush  of  the  whole 
Court,  rushing  as  in  wager,  to  salute  the  new  Sov-  eigns  : 
Hail  to  your  Majesties  !  The  Dauphin  and  Dauphiness  are 
King  and  Queen!  Overpowered  with  many  emotions,  they 
too  fall  on  their  knees  together,  and,  with  streaming  tears, 


328  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

exclaim,  ' '  O  God,  guide  us,  protect  us ;  we  are  too  young  to 
reign!" — Too  young,  indeed. 

But  thus,  in  any  case,  "with  a  sound  absolutely  like  thun- 
der,"  has  the  Horologe  of  Time  struck,  and  an  old  Era  passed 
away.  The  Louis  that  was,  lies  forsaken,  a  mass  of  abhorred 
clay ;  abandoned  ' '  to  some  poor  persons,  and  priests  of  the 
Chapelle  Ardente" — who  make  haste  to  put  him  "in  two 
lead  coffins,  pouring  in  abundant  spirits  of  wine."  The  new 
Louis  with  his  Court  is  rolling  towards  Choisy,  through  the 
summer  afternoon  :  the  royal  tears  still  flow;  but  a  word  mis- 
pronounced by  Monseigneur  d'  Artois  sets  them  all  laughing, 
and  they  weep  no  more.  Light  mortals,  how  ye  walk  your 
light  life-minuet,  over  bottomless  abysses,  divided  from  you 
by  a  film! 

For  the  rest  the  proper  authorities  felt  that  no  Funeral 
could  be  too  unceremonious.  Besenval  himself  thinks  it  was 
unceremonious  enough.  Two  carriages  containing  two  noble- 
men of  the  usher  species,  and  a  Versailles  clerical  person ; 
some  score  of  mounted  pages,  some  fifty  palfreniers:  these, 
with  torches,  but  not  so  much  as  in  black,  start  from  Ver- 
sailles on  the  second  evening,  with  their  leaden  bier.  At  a 
high  trot  they  start;  and  keep  up  that  pace.  For  the  gibes 
(brocards)  of  those  Parisians,  who  stand  planted  in  two  rows, 
all  the  way  to  St.  Denis,  and  "  give  vent  to  their  pleasantry, 
the  characteristic  of  the  nation,"  do  not  tempt  one  to  slacken. 
Towards  midnight  the  vaults  of  St.  Denis  receive  their  own : 
unwept  by  any  eye  of  all  these. 

Him  they  crush  down,  and  huddle  underground,  in  this 
impatient  way;  him  and  his  era  of  sin  and  tyranny  and 
shame:  for  behold,  a  New  Era  is  come:  the  future  all  the 
brighter  that  the  past  was  base. — T.  CARLYLE. 


IBERIUS  SEMPRONIUS  GRACCHUS, 
the  elder  of  the  famous  asserters  of 
popular  rights  among  the  Romans,  was 
born  B.C.  188.  He  served  his  first  cam- 
paign under  his  maternal  uncle,  Scipio 
Africanus.  Not  long  after  he  became 
consul's  quaestor  under  •  Mancinus,  the 
unfortunate  commander  in  the  Numan- 
tine  war.  The  respect  of  the  Numantines  for  the  memory 
of  his  father  enabled  Gracchus  to  obtain  favorable  terms 
for  the  defeated  Roman  army,  but  the  Roman  Senate,  greatly 
displeased,  rejected  the  terms  of  the  accommodation,  and 
resolved  to  deliver  all  the  officers  of  the  army  prisoners 
to  the  enemy.  Finally,  however,  through  the  opposition  of 
the  people  to  this  drastic  measure,  Mancinus  alone  was 
delivered  up  to  the  Numantines,  being  first  stripped  naked 
and  then  shackled.  This  treatment  estranged  Gracchus  from 
the  Senate,  and  tended  to  confirm  the  antagonism  in  his  bosom 
against  their  predominance  in  the  State. 

The  sympathy  of  Gracchus  with  the  people  was  excited 
more  by  their  distress  than  by  his  evident  popularity  with 
them.  In  fact  his  kinsman,  Scipio  Africanus,  the  younger, 
joined  with  the  aristocracy  in  their  jealousy  of  the  rising 
power  of  Tiberius.  When  Tiberius  Gracchus  came  from 
Spain  through  Italy  to  Rome,  he  observed  with  indignation 
thousands  of  foreign  slaves  cultivating  the  immense  estates  of 
the  wealthy,  while  Roman  freemen,  thus  supplanted,  could 

329 


330  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

hardly  procure  their  subsistence.  Necessarily  he  found  Rome 
crowded  with  indigent  freemen.  When,  in  133  B.C.,  Gracchus 
was  elected  tribune,  he  proposed  as  a  remedy  for  the  glaring 
evils  that  afflicted  the  State,  a  revival  of  the  obsolete  Ljcinian 
law  with  some  modifications.  Had  the  Licinian  law,  which 
regulated  the  amount  of  public  land  which  a  person  might 
occupy,  been  observed,  these  evils  could  not  have  arisen. 
The  intention  of  Gracchus  was  to  create  a  middle  class  of 
agriculturists  and  to  put  a  check  upon  the  unbounded  avarice 
of  the  aristocracy,  whose  covetousness  had  destroyed  the  class 
of  small  land-owners. 

The  people  had  anticipated  aid  at  the  hands  of  Gracchus, 
for  placards  were  seen  in  all  parts  of  the  city  calling  upon 
him  to  protect  them.  He  was  also  urged  on  by  his  mother, 
Cornelia,  and  had  the  concurrence  of  eminent  men.  The 
agrarian  law  of  Licinius,  which  it  was  proposed  to  renew,  had 
now  the  modification  that,  besides  the  500  jugera  (about  310 
acres)  of  the  public  land  allowed  by  the  old  law,  any  one 
might  possess  half  as  much  more  for  each  of  his  sons  ;  but 
any  person  owning  more  than  this  amount  was  to  restore  it  to 
the  nation  on  receiving  the  price  for  it  from  the  treasury,  and 
the  land  so  recovered  should  be  divided  among  the  poorer 
citizens;  and,  further,  in  future  the  possession  of  public  lands 
should  not  be  transferred  by  sale  or  purchase,  in  order  that  the 
wealthy  might  not  be  able  gradually  to  acquire  again  more 
land  than  the  law  allowed  :  three  commissioners  were  to  be 
appointed  annually. 

As  the  aristocracy  hotly  opposed  the  projected  law,  Grac- 
chus dropped  the  conciliatory  clauses,  and  proposed  that  the 
holders  of  public  lands  beyond  the  legal  amount  should  be 
obliged  to  give  them  up  at  once.  As  the  consent  of  the  Sen- 
ate was  not  necessary  to  make  it  a  law,  the  aristocracy  in- 
duced Octavius,  one  of  the  tribunes,  to  negative  the  scheme. 
Octavius  himself  was  the  holder  of  an  illegal  amount  of  pub- 
lic land.  Gracchus,  in  turn,  availed  himself  of  his  power  as 
Tribune  to  negative  the  functions  of  every  officer  in  the  State, 
and  sealed  up  the  doors  of  the  treasury,  thus  "stopping  the 
wheels  of  government. ' '  However  strange  was  this  power  of 
the  Tribune,  he  was  still  acting  in  accordance  with  law,  and 


THE   GRACCHI.  331 

the  nobility  went  into  mourning  to  show  their  sense  of  the 
dangerous  state  of  the  Republic. 

Octavius  persisted  in  his  opposition  to  the  law,  and  it 
could  not  be  carried  into  effect.  Tiberius  offered  to  indem- 
nify Octavius  out  of  his  own  purse  for  the  loss  which  he 
might  sustain  through  the  agrarian  law  ;  but  Octavius  de- 
clined. Gracchus  therefore  declared  that  as  the  two  Tribunes 
could  not  come  to  agreement  concerning  the  public  good,  one 
of  them  must  be  deposed.  When  the  day  of  assembly  arrived, 
Tiberius  proposed  the  deposition  of  Octavius,  and  put  it  to  a 
vote.  When  seventeen  out  of  thirty-five  tribes  had  succes- 
sively voted  for  his  deposition,  Tiberius  stopped  the  proceed- 
ings and  implored  Octavius  to  give  up  his  opposition  to  the 
law.  Octavius  was  staggered  ;  but  the  sight  of  the  nobility 
who  anxiously  watched  him,  hardened  him,  and  he  exclaimed, 
' '  Complete  what  thou  hast  begun. ' '  The  eighteenth  tribe 
voted  and  his  tribuneship  was  gone.  With  difficulty  he 
escaped  from  the  fury  of  the  populace. 

The  deposition  of  Octavius  for  the  lawful  exercise  of  his 
rights  has  been  looked  upon  as  a  violation  of  the  Roman  Con- 
stitution ;  but  its  injustice  was  a  mere  irregularity ;  and  Tibe- 
rius might  have  said  that  a  Tribune  who  acted  in  defiance  of 
the  people  was  a  still  greater  irregularity ;  the  people  surely 
had  the  right  to  take  away  a  commission  from  a  man  to  whom 
they  had  given  it.  The  law  being  now  passed,  three  persons 
were  appointed  to  superintend  its  execution.  They  were 
Tiberius  Gracchus,  Appius  Claudius,  his  father-in-law,  and 
his  brother,  Caius  Gracchus.  The  people  were  enthusiastic, 
the  Senate  was  enraged  and  covered  him  with  contumely. 

At  this  time  Attalus,  King  of  Pergamus,  died  after  be- 
queathing his  property  to  the  Roman  people.  Gracchus,  now 
at  the  zenith  of  his  power,  proposed  the  admission  of  the 
Italian  allies  to  the  Roman  franchise,  that  they  might  share 
in  the  benefits  about  to  result  to  the  people.  His  enemies  at 
once  spread  the  report  that  Tiberius  had  secretly  received  a 
diadem  from  the  Pergamian  messenger,  and  that  he  thought 
of  making  himself  King  of  Rome.  The  Roman  freemen  (dis- 
affected to  their  protector  because  of  his  liberal  proposal  re- 
garding the  Italian  allies),  incapable  of  distinguishing  between 


332  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

the  motives  of  Gracchus  and  those  of  the  aristocracy,  now 
turned  against  him.  This  calumny  was  proclaimed  by  Pom- 
peius,  of  whom  Scipio  Nasica,  the  leader  of  the  aristocracy, 
made  use. 

The  time  for  election  of  the  Tribunes  was  at  hand,  and 
Tiberius,  believing  that  his  life  would  be  in  imminent  peril 
when  his  term  expired,  offered  himself  again  as  candidate  for 
the  office.  This  was  the  first  time  that  any  one  had  ever  offered 
himself  for  two  consecutive  terms.  The  election  fell  in  June, 
when  the  peasantry  were  occupied  with  the  harvest.  The 
assembly  of  the  citizens,  therefore,  consisted  mostly  of  the 
city  populace.  Gracchus  had  misgivings.  He  went  about 
leading  his  little  son  by  the  hand,  and  imploring  the  people 
not  to  desert  him  and  not  to  expose  him  to  the  fury  of  his 
enemies,  against  whom  he  had  protected  them.  Two  of  the 
tribes  had  already  voted  in  his  favor,  when  the  aristocrats 
who  were  mingling  among  the  people,  exclaimed  that  no 
man  could  be  elected  for  two  successive  years.  The  presiding 
Tribune,  not  knowing  how  to  act,  the  other  Tribunes  insisted 
that  a  president  ought  to  be  decided  upon  by  lot.  Amidst 
the  greatest  confusion  the  day  had  nearly  passed  when  Tibe- 
rius proposed  an  adjournment  of  the  voting  till  the  next  day. 
The  people,  moved  by  his  fear  and  danger,  escorted  him 
home  and  guarded  his  house  all  that  night.  During  the  night 
he,  in  conjunction  with  his  friends,  devised  a  plan  of  action  if 
his  enemies  should  use  violence. 

The  next  day  he  was  escorted  to  the  Capitol,  and  all  prom- 
ised well ;  but  when  the  voting  began,  the  aristocrats  disturbed 
the  proceedings,  and  the  tumult  became  so  great  that  no  one 
could  be  heard.  At  this  moment  a  senator,  who  was  a  friend 
of  Gracchus,  informed  him  that  the  senators  were  assembled, 
and  that,  as  they  could  not  move  the  consuls  to  interfere,  they 
themselves  were  resolved  to  kill  Tiberius,  and  had  for  this 
purpose  armed  their  slaves  and  partisans.  The  people  now 
armed  themselves  with  whatever  sticks  or  clubs  they  could 
find,  and  soon  the  uproar  became  general.  The  Tribunes  took 
to  flight 

This  was  what  the  aristocratic  party  waited  for,  and  seiz- 
ing the  opportunity,  Scipio  Nasica  exclaimed,  "As  the  consul 


THE   GRACCHI.  333 

betrays  the  Republic,  do  you,  who  wish  to  maintain  the  Con- 
stitution, follow  me!"  The  senators  now  rushed  to  the 
election  place,  and  all  who  ventured  to  oppose  them  were 
knocked  down.  Tiberius,  in  the  act  of  fleeing,  stumbled 
over  one  of  the  killed,  and  as  he  arose,  received  a  fatal  blow. 
He  fell  at  the  entrance  of  the  Temple  of  Faith.  Three  hun- 
dred persons  lost  their  lives,  and,  it  is  said,  none  by  the 
sword.  The  body  of  Gracchus  was  thrown  into  the  River 
Tiber,  and  the  surviving  friends  of  Tiberius  suffered  exile 
and  death  at  the  hands  of  their  implacable  enemies. 

Thus  perished  the  great  Tribune,  who,  from  the  lack  of 
some  prudence,  suffered  the  death  of  a  martyr  in  the  noblest 
cause — the  protection  of  the  oppressed. 

CAIUS  GRACCHUS  was  nine  years  younger  than  Tiberius. 
At  the  time  of  his  brother's  murder,  B.C.  133,  he  was  serving 
in  a  military  capacity  in  Spain,  under  his  brother-in-law, 
Scipio  Africanus,  the  younger,  who  exclaimed,  on  hearing  of 
the  assassination,  ' '  So  perish  all  who  do  the  like  again. ' ' 
The  common  people  looked  forward  to  Caius  with  hopes  of  a 
deliverer;  but  the  aristocracy  watched  him  jealously,  and 
devised  plans  to  prevent  him  from  obtaining  the  Tribuneship. 
The  term  of  Caius  as  quaestor  to  Sardinia  being  about  to 
expire,  fresh  troops  were  sent,  and  the  Consul  Orestes  was 
ordered  to  remain  in  the  island,  the  intention  being  to  detain 
Caius  there  also.  It  is  reported  that  the  shade  of  his  brother 
appeared  to  him  and  said,  ' '  Caius,  why  dost  thou  linger  ? 
There  is  no  escape  ;  thou  must  die  like  myself,  defending  the 
rights  of  the  people."  Cicero  and  Plutarch  declare  that 
Caius  was  drawn  into  his  political  career  by  a  sort  of  fatality. 
When  he  heard  the  voice  of  Tiberius,  he  divined  the  inten- 
tion of  the  Senate,  and  at  once  appeared  at  Rome.  Being 
cited  before  the  censors,  he  proved  he  had  violated  no  law  or 
custom  in  relinquishing  his  post  as  quaestor. 

The  aristocracy  persisted,  however,  in  harassing  Caius 
upon  various  frivolous  pretexts  ;  but  being  encouraged  by  the 
demands  of  the  people,  he  became  a  candidate  for  the  Tribune- 
ship.  His  mother  prayed  him  not  to  deprive  her  of  her  last 
comfort  and  support  in  her  old  age  ;  but  Caius  had  already 
gone  too  far.  His  hatred  of  his  brother's  murderers,  and  the 


334  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

enthusiasm  of  the  people  who  flocked  to  Rome  to  elect  him, 
did  not  allow  him  to  retrace  his  steps.  The  whole  of  the 
aristocracy  opposed  his  election  ;  and  while  they  could  not 
prevent  his  election,  they  succeeded  in  causing  him  to  be 
fourth  instead  of  first  Tribune.  Caius,  however,  soon  made 
himself  first,  for  he  surpassed  all  his  contemporaries  in  elo- 
quence, and  his  misfortunes  gave  him  an  ample  scope  for 
speaking  freely  concerning  his  lamented  brother's  death. 

He  became  Tribune  B.C.  123.  His  first  act  was  the  pro- 
posal of  a  law,  aimed  at  the  ex-Tribune  Octavius,  that  whoever 
had  been  deprived  by  the  people  of  one  office,  should  never 
be  allowed  to  hold  another ;  his  second  act  was  a  law  (directed 
against  the  murderers  of  his  brother)  that  whoever  had  put  to 
death  or  banished  a  Roman  citizen  without  trial  should  be 
liable  to  persecution.  These  first  steps  may  be  regarded  as  an 
expiatory  sacrifice  offered  to  the  shade  of  his  brother.  At 
the  request  of  his  mother  he  withdrew  the  former  bill.  He 
now  renewed  the  agrarian  law,  which,  after  the  death  of  his 
brother,  had  not  been  enforced. 

The  legislation  of  this  great  man  had  two  distinct  objects  : 
first,  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the  poor,  and  secondly,  to 
diminish  the  power  of  the  Senate  and  thereby  weaken  the 
aristocracy.  His  plan  was  extensive,  embracing  every  de- 
partment of  government.  The  few  details  of  his  laws  that 
have  survived  show  that  they  were  wise  and  salutary,  and  if 
his  plans  had  not  been  thwarted  by  the  aristocracy,  the 
Roman  Republic  might  long  have  been  prosperous. 

Caius  carried  a  law  by  which  the  judiciary  were  trans- 
ferred from  the  Senate  to  a  court  consisting  of  three  hundred 
knights.  The  benefits  to  the  people,  however,  were  not  per- 
manent, as  the  knights  soon  discovered  as  many  motives  for 
the  perpetration  of  injustice  as  the  senators  had  had  before. 
The  favoritism  hitherto  practiced  by  the  Senate  in  its  assign- 
ment of  provinces  to  consuls  and  praetors  was  abolished  by 
another  law.  The  roads  of  Italy  were  improved,  thus  affording 
much  employment  to  the  poor. 

Caius,  when  elected  for  his  second  term  as  Tribune,  pro- 
cured also  the  election  of  his  friend  Fannius  to  the  Consul- 
ship, as  against  Opimius  (B.C.  122).  The  Italian  allies  had 


THE  GRACCHI.  335 

for  some  time  been  urgent  for  the  privilege  of  the  Roman 
franchise.  While  a  bill  of  Caius  for  this  purpose  was  under 
consideration,  the  Senate  resorted  to  a  treacherous  course  of 
action  in  order  to  preserve  their  privileges.  One  of  the 
Tribunes,  Livius  Drusus,  a  man  of  wealth,  was  influenced  by 
the  senators  to  outbid  Caius  in  the  proposal  of  popular  meas- 
ures. The  people,  thus  imposed  upon  by  Drusus,  gradually 
became  reconciled  to  the  Senate,  and  the  recollection  of  past 
sufferings  was  effaced.  The  popularity  of  Caius  decreased, 
and  his  position  became  perilous.  His  friend  Fannius,  the 
Consul,  for  whom  Caius  had  acquired  a  mortal  enemy  in 
Opimius,  now  fell  away  from  him.  By  command  of  the 
Senate,  Fannius  drove  out  of  the  city  all  those  who  were  not 
Roman  citizens ;  and  Caius,  although  he  had  promised  them 
his  assistance  if  they  would  defy  the  edict  and  remain  in 
Rome,  yet  allowed  his  acquaintances  to  be  dragged  off  before 
his  eyes  by  the  lictors  of  the  Consul.  The  people  regarded 
his  forbearance  as  an  act  of  cowardice. 

Caius  was  defeated  for  a  third  term  as  Tribune,  and  on  the 
other  hand  Opimius  was  chosen  Consul.  The  Senate  resorted 
to  various  measures  to  estrange  the  people  from  Caius.  They 
also  repealed  several  of  his  enactments.  The  crisis  was  at 
hand.  During  a  meeting  of  the  people,  a  certain  Autyllius, 
a  creature  of  the  Consul  Opimius,  was  killed,  it  is  said, 
because  of  an  insult  to  some  of  the  friends  of  Caius.  Caius, 
who  was  not  concerned  in  the  murder,  deeply  grieved,  de- 
scended to  the  forum  to  explain  the  unfortunate  occurrence  ; 
but  the  people  shunned  him  as  if  he  were  accursed.  The 
assembly  broke  up ;  Caius  and  his  impetuous  friend  Flaccus 
returned  to  their  homes.  The  Consul  Opimius  urged  the 
people  to  avenge  the  murder.  The  next  day  he  convoked 
the  Senate,  while  the  people  were  assembled  in  the  forum,  and 
garrisoned  the  capital.  At  his  command  the  body  of  Autyl- 
lius was  carried  across  the  forum  with  loud  wailings,  and  was 
deposited  in  front  of  the  Senate-house.  The  Senate  conferred 
unlimited  power  upon  Opimius  to  act  as  he  thought  best  for 
the  good  of  the  Republic.  Opimius  at  once  ordered  the 
Senate  to  meet  again  the  next  day  in  arms,  and  each  knight 
was  commanded  to  bring  with  him  two  armed  slaves. 


336  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

The  friends  of  Caius  took  up  a  strong  position,  but  Caius 
refused  to  arm  himself;  he  left  his  house  having  only  a 
dagger  under  his  toga.  He  prevailed  on  Flaccus  to  send  his 
young  son  as  a  deputy  to  the  Senate  to  propose  a  reconciliation. 
The  innocent  request  of  the  boy  moved  some  of  the  senators  ; 
but  Opimius  haughtily  declared  that  rebels  must  surrender  at 
discretion.  Opimius,  who  longed  to  use  force,  advanced  with 
armed  men  toward  the  friends  of  Caius,  at  the  same  time 
proclaiming  amnesty  for  all  those  who  would  at  once  lay 
down  their  arms.  As  they  had  no  organization  they  were 
soon  dispersed,  and  Flaccus  and  his  son  were  murdered  in 
their  flight.  Gracchus,  who  had  early  withdrawn  for  a  while 
to  a  temple,  now  arrived  at  the  bridge  over  the  Tiber ;  but  he 
would  have  been  cut  down  had  not  his  friends  resolutely 
fought  until  they  all  were  killed.  Accompanied  by  a  single 
slave  he  reached  a  grove,  and  there  the  slave  first  killed  his 
master  and  then  himself.  The  bodies  of  the  slain  were 
thrown  into  the  Tiber.  They  amounted  to  three  thousand. 
Their  property  was  confiscated,  and  their  houses  demolished. 
The  friends  of  Gracchus  who  fell  into  the  hands  of  their 
enemies  were  thrown  into  prison,  and  there  strangled.  After 
the  Senate  was  satiated  with  blood,  it  dedicated  a  temple  to 
Concord  ! 

The  people  of  Rome,  when  they  found  themselves  again 
oppressed,  were  seized  with  remorse ;  statues  were  erected  to 
the  two  brothers,  and  the  spots  on  which  they  had  fallen  were 
declared  sacred  ground. 

CORNELIA,  THE  MOTHER  OF  THE  GRACCHI. 

Cornelia,  the  mother  of  the  two  illustrious  Roman  tribunes, 
Tiberius  and  Caius  Gracchus,  was  the  younger  daughter  of 
Scipio  Africanus,  the  conqueror  of  Hannibal.  The  lapse  of 
two  thousand  years  has  not  diminished  the  splendor  of  the 
distinction  which  is  inseparable  from  the  title  conferred  upon 
her  by  the  Roman  people,  "  The  Mother  of  the  Gracchi !  " 

Her  husband,  Tiberius  Gracchus,  a  man  of  noble  character, 
belonged  to  the  plebeian  gens  of  the  Sempronia.  Cornelia's 
descent  was  of  the  patrician  order.  After  her  husband's  death, 
Cornelia  devoted  herself  entirely  to  the  education  of  her 


THE   GRACCHI.  337 

children,  training  them  to  be  worthy  of  their  father  and  of 
her  own  ancestors.  L,ike  all  leading  women  of  Rome,  she 
had  imbibed  the  heroic  or  ambitious  spirit  of  the  age.  When 
a  Campanian  lady  made  a  show  of  her  jewels  at  Cornelia's 
house,  and  entreated  the  favor  of  a  sight  of  her  own,  Cornelia 
delayed  until  the  return  of  her  two  sons,  and  then  presented 
them,  saying,  "These  are  my  jewels."  They  early  showed 
ambition,  but  at  the  same  time  were  nobly  patriotic.  She 
persuaded  them  to  study  Greek  philosophy,  in  which  all  the 
ennobling  principles  of  freedom  are  to  be  found. 

The  whole  life  of  Cornelia  presents  a  beautiful  character, 
and  from  the  facts  which  have  come  down  to  us  we  may  draw 
these  inferences  :  First,  Cornelia  must  have  been  educated 
in  a  very  superior  manner  by  her  father.  For  in  no  other  way 
can  we  account  for  her  knowledge  and  love  of  literature  ;  nor 
for  the  fact  that  while  yet  young,  she  was  regarded  as  worthy 
of  the  companionship  and  discourse  of  the  most  virtuous  and 
noble  men  of  Rome.  Second,  she  must  have  been  from  the 
beginning  a  woman  of  fixed  principles  and  undaunted  cour- 
age ;  for  in  no  other  way  can  we  account  for  her  unremitting 
care  of  her  family,  the  high  education  of  her  sons,  and  her 
great  influence  over  them  to  the  end  of  their  careers. 

Cornelia  survived  the  violent  deaths  of  her  two  sons,  and 
gloried  in  the  struggles  they  had  made  for  liberty.  When 
some  one  offered  her  condolence,  she  replied, "  Can  the  mother 
of  the  Gracchi  need  consolation  ? ' ' 

Plutarch  closes  the  lives  of  the  Gracchi  with  the  following 
account  of  Cornelia's  later  life:  "She  took  up  her  residence  at 
Misenum,  and  made  no  alteration  in  her  manner  of  living. 
As  she  had  many  friends,  her  table  was  ever  open  for  the 
purpose  of  hospitality.  Greeks  and  other  men  of  letters  she 
had  always  with  her,  and  all  the  kings  in  alliance  with  Rome 
expressed  their  regard  by  sending  her  presents.  .  .  .  She 
made  herself  very  agreeable  to  her  guests  by  acquainting 
them  with  many  particulars  of  her  father,  Africanus.  .  .  .  But 
what  they  most  admired  in  her  was  that  she  could  speak  of 
her  sons  without  a  sigh  or  a  tear,  and  recount  their  actions 
and  sufferings  as  if  she  had  been  giving  an  account  of  some 
ancient  heroes.  Some,  therefore,  imagined  that  age  and  the 

22 


338 


HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS   EVENTS. 


greatness  of  her  misfortunes  had  deprived  her  of  sensibility. 
But  those  who  were  of  that  opinion  seem  rather  to  have 
wanted  understanding  themselves,  since  they  knew  not  how 
much  a  noble  mind  may,  by  a  liberal  education,  be  enabled 
to  support  itself  against  distress,  and  that  though  in  the  pur- 
suit of  rectitude,  Fortune  may  often  defeat  the  purposes  of 
Virtue;  yet  Virtue,  in  bearing  affliction,  can  never  lose  her 
prerogative." 

She  lived  long  enough  to  receive  striking  evidence  of  the 
reaction  of  public  opinion  against  the  Roman  Senate,  the 
destroyer  of  her  sons.  The  Roman  people  erected  in  the 
Forum,  during  her  lifetime,  a  statue  in  her  honor  with  this 
inscription:  "CORNELIA  MATER  GRACCHORUM."  Of  late 
years  the  statue,  still  on  the  site  of  the  Forum,  has  been  dis- 
covered during  archaeological  excavations  at  Rome. — J.  WYLIE 
WILLIAMS. 


THE  long  reign  of  Justinian  as  Roman  Em- 
peror of  the  East  was  a  remarkable  epoch 
in  the  history  of  the  world.  He  was  origi- 
nally named  Uprauda,  and  was  born  of  ob- 
scure parents  in  Dardania  in  Illyricum,  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  in  May, 
483,  A.D.  He  was  a  nephew  of  the  Em- 
peror Justin  L,  who  in  518  appointed  Up- 
rauda, or  as  he  henceforth  called  himself,  Flavius  Justinianus, 
as  his  colleague.  Nine  years  later  he  became  sole  Emperor 
at  Constantinople,  having  been  crowned  or  invested  with 
supreme  authority  by  Justin  a  few  months  before  his  death. 

Thoroughly  imbued  with  high  ideas  of  his  imperial 
authority  in  all  matters  of  Church  as  well  as  State,  Justinian 
began  a  persecution  of  the  Arians,  Jews  and  Pagans.  Yet 
Theodora,  the  wife  of  this  severely  orthodox  and  persecuting 
Emperor,  had  been  an  actress  and  even  a  courtesan.  Her 
unbounded  influence  over  him  is  regarded  as  attesting  her 
greater  strength  of  character.  In  527  he  proclaimed  her  as 
Empress  and  as  his  equal  colleague  in  the  Empire.  "The 
reproach  of  cruelty,"  says  Gibbon,  "so  repugnant  even  to  her 
softer  vices,  has  left  an  indelible  stain  on  the  memory  of 
Theodora." 

Justinian  was  by  no  means  a  lover  of  pleasure ;  he  was 
fond  of  study  and  very  diligent  in  application  to  business. 
He  was,  or  professed  to  be,  a  poet,  a  philosopher,  a  lawyer, 
and  architect.  His  liberality  and  architectural  talents  were 
displayed  in  the  construction  of  churches,  aqueducts,  bridges, 
convents  and  fortifications.  The  magnificent  church  of  Saint 
Sophia  in  Constantinople  was  built  under  his  directions.  To 

339 


340  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

him  also  is  due  the  introduction  of  silk-worms  and  of  the 
manufacture  of  silk  fabrics  into  Europe. 

Soon  after  his  accession  to  the  throne  Justinian,  appointed 
Belisarius  commander-in-chief  of  his  armies.  To  this  famous 
general  he  was  indebted  for  the  military  glory  of  his  reign. 
Belisarius  defeated  the  Persians  at  Dara  in  530,  and  gained 
decisive  victories  over  the  Vandals  in  Africa  in  533  and  534. 
He  afterward  defeated  the  Ostrogoths  in  Italy  in  536,  captured 
Rome,  and  re-united  Italy  to  the  Empire  of  the  East.  Jus- 
tinian became  the  most  powerful  European  monarch  of  his 
time,  and  the  most  famous  of  all  the  Emperors  of  the  Eastern 
Roman  Empire.  His  government  extended  over  sixty-four 
Provinces.  Theology  appears  to  have  been  one  of  his  ruling 
passions.  He  summoned  a  general  council  of  the  church  to 
deal  with  heresy,  enacted  stringent  laws  against  heathen  and 
heretics,  and  closed  the  schools  of  philosophy  at  Athens 
because  of  his  disapproval  of  their  doctrines.  By  a  strange 
fatality  he  finally  lapsed  into  heresy  himself,  holding  that  the 
earthly  body  of  Christ  was  incorruptible. 

It  is  as  a  legislator  and  codifier  of  laws,  that  the  name  of 
Justinian  is  most  memorable  and  familiar  to  the  modern  world. 
He  found  that,  through  lapse  of  time  and  the  multiplication  of 
imperial  decrees  and  decisions,  the  laws  of  the  Roman  Empire 
had  been  plunged  into  great  confusion.  The  infinite  variety  of 
laws  and  legal  opinions  had  filled  many  thousand  volumes. 
The  reforms  of  Justinian  were  of  immense  benefit  to  both 
lawyers  and  people.  They  were  compiled  by  the  eminent 
jurist,  Tribonian,  and  were  published  under  the  names 
"Codes,"  "Pandects,"  or  Digests,  and  "Institutions." 

Justinian  was  the  last  Emperor  of  Constantinople  who,  by 
his  dominion  over  all  Italy,  re-united  the  two  principal  parts  of 
the  former  Empire  of  the  Caesars.  He  died  without  issue  in 
565  A.D.,  after  a  reign  of  thirty-eight  years.  His  habits  were 
temperate  and  virtuous,  and  he  was  addicted  to  long  vigils. 
Great  diversity  of  opinion  exists  among  historians  respecting 
his  character  and  abilities.  The  name  of  this  Emperor  is 
eclipsed  by  that  of  his  victorious  generals  ;  and  that  of  Bel- 
isarius still  lives  to  upbraid  the  envy  and  ingratitude  of  his 
sovereign. 


JUSTINIAN.  341 

REFORM  OF  ROMAN  LAW  BY  JUSTINIAN. 

When  Justinian  ascended  the  throne,  the  reformation  of 
the  Roman  jurisprudence  was  an  arduous  but  indispensable 
task.  In  the  space  of  ten  centuries,  the  infinite  variety  of 
laws  and  legal  opinions  had  filled  many  thousand  volumes, 
which  no  fortune  could  purchase  and  no  capacity  could  digest. 
Books  could  not  easily  be  found  ;  and  the  judges,  poor  in  the 
midst  of  riches,  were  reduced  to  the  exercise  of  their  illiterate 
discretion.  The  subjects  of  the  Greek  Provinces  were  igno- 
rant of  the  language  that  disposed  of  their  lives  and  proper- 
ties ;  and  the  barbarous  dialect  of  the  Latins  was  imperfectly 
studied  in  the  academies  of  Berytus  and  Constantinople.  As 
an  Illy rian  soldier,  that  idiom  was  familiar  to  the  infancy  of 
Justinian  ;  his  youth  had  been  instructed  by  the  lessons  of 
jurisprudence,  and  his  Imperial  choice  selected  the  most 
learned  civilians  of  the  East  to  labor  with  their  sovereign  in 
the  work  of  reformation.  The  theory  of  professors  was 
assisted  by  the  practice  of  advocates  and  the  experience  of 
magistrates;  and  the  whole  undertaking  was  animated  by  the 
spirit  of  Tribonian. 

This  extraordinary  man,  the  object  of  so  much  praise  and 
censure,  was  a  native  of  Side  in  Pamphylia  ;  and  his  genius, 
like  that  of  Bacon,  embraced  as  his  own  all  the  business  and 
knowledge  of  the  age.  To  the  literature  of  Greece  he  added 
the  use  of  the  Latin  tongue;  the  Roman  civilians  were  depos- 
ited in  his  library  and  in  his  mind  ;  and  he  most  assiduously 
cultivated  those  arts  which  opened  the  road  to  wealth  and 
preferment.  From  the  bar  of  the  praetorian  praefects  he  raised 
himself  to  the  honors  of  quaestor,  of  consul,  and  of  master  of 
the  offices.  The  reproaches  of  impiety  and  avarice  have 
stained  the  virtues  or  the  reputation  of  Tribonian.  In  a 
bigoted  and  persecuting  court,  the  principal  minister  was 
accused  of  a  secret  aversion  to  the  Christian  faith,  and  was 
supposed  to  entertain  the  sentiments  of  an  atheist  and  a  Pagan. 
His  avarice  was  more  clearly  proved  and  more  sensibly  felt. 
If  he  were  swayed  by  gifts  in  the  administration  of  justice, 
the  example  of  Bacon  will  again  occur  ;  nor  can  the  merit  of 
Tribonian  atone  for  his  baseness,  if  he  degraded  the  sanctity 


342  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

of  his  profession,  and  if  the  laws  were  every  day  enacted, 
modified  or  repealed,  for  the  base  consideration  of  his  private 
emolument.  In  the  sedition  of  Constantinople,  his  removal 
was  granted  to  the  clamors,  perhaps  to  the  just  indignation, 
of  the  people  ;  but  the  Quaestor  was  speedily  restored,  and, 
till  the  hour  of  his  death,  he  possessed,  above  twenty  years, 
the  favor  and  confidence  of  the  Emperor. 

In  the  first  year  of  his  reign  Justinian  directed  the  faith- 
ful Tribonian,  and  nine  learned  associates,  to  revise  the  ordi- 
nances of  his  predecessors,  as  they  were  contained,  since  the 
time  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  in  the  Gregorian,  Hermogenian 
and  Theodosian  Codes.  The  work  was  accomplished  in  four- 
teen months  (A.D.  528,  529) ;  and  the  Twelve  Books  or  Tables, 
which  the  new  decemvirs  produced,  might  be  designed  to 
imitate  the  labors  of  their  Roman  predecessors.  The  new 
CODE  of  Justinian  was  honored  with  his  name,  and  confirmed 
by  his  royal  signature  :  authentic  transcripts  were  multiplied 
by  the  pens  of  notaries  and  scribes,  and  were  transmitted  to 
the  magistrates  of  the  Provinces. 

A  more  arduous  operation  was  still  behind — to  extract  the 
spirit  of  jurisprudence  from  the  decisions  and  conjectures,  the 
questions  and  disputes,  of  the  Roman  civilians.  Seventeen 
lawyers,  with  Tribonian  at  their  head,  were  appointed  by  the 
Emperor  to  exercise  an  absolute  jurisdiction  over  the  works  of 
their  predecessors.  If  they  had  obeyed  his  commands  in  ten 
years,  Justinian  would  have  been  satisfied  with  their  diligence; 
and  the  rapid  composition  of  the  DIGEST  or  PANDECTS  in 
three  years  will  deserve  praise  or  censure  according  to  the 
merit  of  the  execution  (A.D.  530,  Dec.  15 — A.D.  533,  Dec. 
16).  From  the  library  of  Tribonian  they  chose  forty,  the 
most  eminent  civilians  of  former  times:  2,000  treatises  were 
comprised  in  an  abridgement  of  50  books ;  and  it  has  been 
carefully  recorded  that  three  millions  of  lines  or  sentences 
were  reduced,  in  this  abstract,  to  the  moderate  number  of 
150,000.  The  edition  of  this  great  work  was  delayed  a  month 
after  that  of  the  INSTITUTES  :  and  it  seemed  reasonable  that 
the  elements  should  precede  the  digest  of  the  Roman  law. 
As  soon  as  the  Emperor  had  approved  their  labors,  he  ratified, 
by  his  legislative  power,  the  speculations  of  these  private 


JUSTINIAN.  343 

citizens ;  their  commentaries  on  the  Twelve  Tables,  the 
Perpetual  Edict,  the  laws  of  the  people,  and  the  decrees  of 
the  Senate,  succeeded  to  the  authority  of  the  text ;  and  the 
text  was  abandoned  as  an  useless,  though  venerable  relic  of 
antiquity.  The  Code,  the  Pandects,  and  the  Institutes,  were 
declared  to  be  the  legitimate  system  of  civil  jurisprudence  ; 
they  alone  were  admitted  in  the  tribunals,  and  they  alone 
were  taught  in  the  academies  of  Rome,  Constantinople  and 
Berytus. 

Since  the  Emperor  declined  the  fame  and  envy  of  original 
composition,  we  can  only  require  at  his  hands  method,  choice, 
and  fidelity — the  humble,  though  indispensable,  virtues  of  a 
compiler.  Among  the  various  combinations  of  ideas  it  is 
difficult  to  assign  any  reasonable  preference ;  but,  as  the  order 
of  Justinian  is  different  in  his  three  works,  it  is  possible  that 
all  may  be  wrong,  and  it  is  certain  that  two  cannot  be  right. 
In  the  selection  of  ancient  laws  he  seems  to  have  viewed  his 
predecessors  without  jealousy  and  with  equal  regard :  the 
series  could  not  ascend  above  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  and  the 
narrow  distinction  of  Paganism  and  Christianity,  introduced 
by  the  superstition  of  Theodosius,  had  been  abolished  by  the 
consent  of  mankind.  But  the  jurisprudence  of  the  Pandects 
is  circumscribed  within  a  period  of  an  hundred  years,  from 
the  Perpetual  Edict  to  the  death  of  Alexander  Severus  ;  the 
civilians  who  lived  under  the  first  Caesars  are  seldom  per- 
mitted to  speak,  and  only  three  names  can  be  attributed  to 
the  age  of  the  Republic.  The  favorite  of  Justinian  (it  has 
been  fiercely  urged)  was  fearful  of  encountering  the  light  of 
freedom  and  the  gravity  of  Roman  sages.  But  the  ministers 
of  Justinian  were  instructed  to  labor  not  for  the  curiosity  of 
antiquarians,  but  for  the  immediate  benefit  of  his  subjects. 
Perhaps,  if  the  preceptors  and  friends  of  Cicero  were  still 
alive,  our  candor  would  acknowledge  that  their  intrinsic 
merit  was  excelled  by  the  school  of  Papinian  and  Ulpian. 
The  science  of  the  laws  is  the  slow  growth  of  time  and 
experience,  and  the  advantage  both  of  method  and  materials 
is  naturally  assumed  by  the  most  recent  authors.  But  the 
Emperor  was  guilty  of  fraud  and  forgery  when  he  corrupted 
the  integrity  of  their  text,  inscribed  with  their  venerable 


344  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

names  the  words  and  ideas  of  his  servile  reign,  and  sup- 
pressed by  the  hand  of  power  the  pure  and  authentic 
copies  of  their  sentiments.  The  changes  and  interpolations 
of  Tribonian  and  his  colleagues  are  excused  by  the  pretence 
of  uniformity :  but  their  cares  have  been  insufficient,  and  the 
antinomies,  or  contradictions,  of  the  Code  and  Pandects,  still 
exercise  the  patience  and  subtlety  of  modern  civilians. 

A  rumor,  devoid  of  evidence,  has  been  propagated  by  the 
enemies  of  Justinian,  that  the  jurisprudence  of  ancient  Rome 
was  reduced  to  ashes  by  the  author  of  the  Pandects,  from  the 
vain  persuasion  that  it  was  now  either  false  or  superfluous. 
Without  usurping  an  office  so  invidious,  the  Emperor  might 
safely  commit  to  ignorance  and  time  the  accomplishment  of 
this  destructive  wish.  Before  the  invention  of  printing  and 
paper,  the  labor  and  materials  of  writing  could  be  purchased 
only  by  the  rich  ;  and  it  may  reasonably  be  computed  that  the 
price  of  books  was  an  hundred-fold  their  present  value.  The 
books  of  jurisprudence  were  interesting  to  few  and  entertain- 
ing to  none ;  the  value  was  connected  with  present  use,  and 
they  sunk  forever  as  soon  as  that  use  was  superseded  by  the 
innovations  of  fashion,  superior  merit,  or  public  authority. 
The  copies  of  Papinian  or  Ulpian,  which  the  reformer  had  pro- 
scribed, were  deemed  unworthy  of  future  notice  ;  the  Twelve 
Tables  and  praetorian  edict  insensibly  vanished  ;  and  the 
monuments  of  ancient  Rome  were  neglected  or  destroyed  by 
the  envy  and  ignorance  of  the  Greeks.  Even  the  Pandects 
themselves  have  escaped  with  difficulty  and  danger  from  the 
common  shipwreck,  and  criticism  has  pronounced  that  all  the 
editions  and  manuscripts  of  the  West  are  derived  from  one 
original.  It  was  transcribed  at  Constantinople  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventh  century,  was  successively  transported  by 
the  accidents  of  war  and  commerce  to  Amalphi,  Pisa,  and 
Florence,  and  is  now  deposited  as  a  sacred  relic  in  the  ancient 
Palace  of  the  Republic. 

It  is  the  first  care  of  a  reformer  to  prevent  any  future 
reformation.  To  maintain  the  text  of  the  Pandects,  the  In- 
stitutes, and  the  Code,  the  use  of  ciphers  and  abbreviations 
was  rigorously  proscribed  ;  and  as  Justinian  recollected  that 
the  Perpetual  Edict  had  been  buried  under  the  weight  of 


JUSTINIAN.  345 

commentators,  he  denounced  the  punishment  of  forgery 
against  the  rash  civilians  who  should  presume  to  interpret  or 
pervert  the  will  of  their  sovereign.  But  the  Emperor  was 
unable  to  fix  his  own  inconstancy ;  and,  while  he  boasted  of 
renewing  the  exchange  of  Diomede,  of  transmuting  brass 
into  gold,  he  discovered  the  necessity  of  purifying  the  gold 
from  the  mixture  of  baser  alloy.  Six  years  had  not  elapsed 
from  the  publication  of  the  Code  before  he  condemned  the 
imperfect  attempt  by  a  new  and  more  accurate  edition  of  the 
same  work,  which  he  enriched  with  two  hundred  of  his  own 
laws  and  fifty  decisions  of  the  darkest  and  most  intricate 
points  of  jurisprudence  (A.D.  534,  Nov.  16).  Every  year,  or, 
according  to  Procopius,  each  day  of  his  long  reign  was  marked 
by  some  legal  innovation.  Many  of  his  acts  were  rescinded 
by  himself ;  many  were  rejected  by  his  successors ;  many 
have  been  obliterated  by  time  ;  but  the  number  of  sixteen 
Edicts,  and  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  Novels,  has  been 
admitted  into  the  authentic  body  of  the  civil  jurisprudence 
(A.D.  534-565)- 

Monarchs  seldom  condescend  to  become  the  preceptors  of 
their  subjects ;  and  some  praise  is  due  to  Justinian,  by  whose 
command  an  ample  system  was  reduced  to  a  short  and  ele- 
mentary treatise.  Among  the  various  institutes  of  the  Roman 
law,  those  of  Gaius  were  the  most  popular  in  the  East  and 
West;  and  their  use  may  be  considered  as  an  evidence  of 
their  merit.  They  were  selected  by  the  Imperial  delegates, 
Tribonian,  Theophilus,  and  Dorotheus;  and  the  freedom 
and  purity  of  the  Antonines  was  encrusted  with  the  coarser 
materials  of  a  degenerate  age.  The  same  volume  which  in- 
troduced the  youth  of  Rome,  Constantinople  and  Berytus  to 
the  gradual  study  of  the  Code  and  Pandects,  is  still  precious 
to  the  historian,  the  philosopher  and  the  magistrate. — 
E.  GIBBON. 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN. 


FRANKLIN'S  name,  as  he  him- 
self states  in  his  Autobiogra- 
phy, shows  that  his  family 
belonged  to  that  sturdy  race  of 
English  yeomen,  whose  stub- 
born self-reliance  and  daunt- 
less courage  have  contributed 
largely  to  England's  greatness. 
For  three  centuries  his  ances- 
tors were  settled  at  Ecton,  in 
Northamptonshire,  England ; 
but  in  1682  Josias  Franklin, 
being  a  Nonconformist  to  the  Church  of  England,  emigrated 
to  America  and  settled  in  Boston.  He  was  twice  married 
and  had  seventeen  children,  of  whom  Benjamin,  born  January 
6,  1706,  was  the  youngest  son.  Josias  was  a  tallow-chandler, 
and  Benjamin,  at  the  age  of  ten,  was  called  from  school  to 
assist  in  that  occupation.  At  twelve  he  went  to  a  cousin's  to 
learn  the  trade  of  cutler ;  but  when  his  brother  James  returned 
from  England  to  open  a  printing-office,  Benjamin  found  there 
his  true  destiny.  He  was  a  lover  of  books,  and  had  already 
gathered  a  number,  and  made  himself  familiar  with  Plutarch, 
Bunyan  and  Defoe. 

In  1721  James  Franklin  ventured  to  publish  a  newspaper, 
called  The  New  England  Courant,  the  third  regularly  issued 
in  America.  For  its  columns  young  Benjamin  wrote  several 
articles,  and  as  they  were  contributed  anonymously,  he  had 
the  gratification  of  hearing  them  attributed  by  frequenters  of 
his  brother's  shop  to  some  leading  men  of  the  town.  The 
boy  worked  diligently  at  case,  and  saved  time  from  meals  to 
346 


.  sb 

^  A  ii  k  !.•  .;*'  OwUUULry 

UOtt  ^^wuUwi^,  C**JUu 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN.  347 

read  and  study.  James  Franklin  was  arrested  and  imprisoned 
for  publishing  a  political  article  which  gave  offence  to  the 
authorities  ;  but  the  paper  was  still  issued  in  the  name  of  Ben- 
jamin. As  it  prospered  under  his  management,  and  the 
secret  of  his  contributions  became  known,  James  became 
jealous  of  his  brother,  and  treated  him  with  such  harshness 
that  Benjamin  ran  away.  He  went  to  New  York,  but  being 
unable  to  obtain  employment,  crossed  the  Jerseys  on  foot  and 
assisted  in  rowing  the  boat  that  brought  him  down  the  Dela- 
ware from  Burlington  to  Philadelphia. 

Andrew  Bradford,  the  only  printer  in  Philadelphia,  was 
not  able  to  give  Franklin  employment,  yet  gave  him  lodging 
till  he  could  secure  a  place.  This  he  obtained  with  a  German 
Jew  named  Keimer,  who  proposed  to  start  a  rival  office, 
though  he  knew  little  of  the  trade,  and  depended  on  Franklin, 
then  only  seventeen  years  of  age,  to  make  his  scheme  success- 
ful. The  Boston  runaway  proved  himself  the  man  for  the 
place,  and  when  his  brother  James  wrote  to  him  begging  him 
to  return  to  his  home  and  friends,  Benjamin  refused.  Sir 
William  Keith,  Governor  of  Pennsylvania,  having  discovered 
Franklin's  ability  as  a  writer  as  well  as  printer,  suggested 
that  he  should  start  in  business  for  himself,  and  promised  to 
use  his  influence  on  his  behalf.  Franklin  therefore  asked  his 
father's  assistance  ;  but  the  prudent  father  thought  him  still 
too  young.  Keith  then  proposed  that  Franklin  should  go  to 
London  to  procure  an  outfit,  and  furnished  him  letters  of 
introduction,  which  proved  worthless.  Franklin  arrived  in 
London  penniless,  and  was  obliged  to  seek  work  as  a  compositor 
and  pressman.  However,  he  wrote  and  printed  on  his  own 
account  "A  Short  Dissertation  on  Liberty  and  Necessity, 
Pleasure  and  Pain,"  and  by  it  obtained  some  literary  friends, 
including  Mandeville  and  Sir  Hans  Sloane.  He  practiced 
vegetarianism,  and,  to  the  astonishment  of  his  fellow-pressmen, 
used  water  only  as  a  beverage,  and  was  called  by  them  the 
"American  Aquatic." 

After  spending  eighteen  months  in  London  Franklin 
returned  to  Philadelphia,  and  became  chief  clerk  in  the  store 
of  Mr.  Denham,  who  had  been  a  fellow-passenger  in  both  his 
voyages.  But  Denham  soon  died,  and  Franklin  returned  to 


348  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

Keimer  as  manager  of  his  business.  He  next  formed  a  part- 
nership, which  proved  successful  enough  to  enable  him  in 
1729  to  buy  out  his  partner  and  purchase  the  Pennsylvania 
Gazette.  The  paper  had  only  ninety  subscribers  ;  but  under 
Franklin's  judicious  management  this  number  soon  increased. 
In  September,  1 730,  he  was  married  to  Miss  Read,  in  whose 
father's  house  he  had  lived  for  some  time  after  his  first  arrival 
in  Philadelphia.  In  1 732,  under  the  name  of  Richard  Saunders, 
Franklin  began  the  publication  of  an  Almanac,  which,  being 
continued  for  about  twenty-five  years,  became  famous  as 
"Poor  Richards  Almanac"  and  reached  a  sale  of  10,000 
copies  annually. 

Early  in  his  career  as  printer,  Franklin  had  formed  a 
club  called  "The  Junto"  for  the  discussion  of  questions  of 
morality,  philosophy  and  politics.  It  met  on  Friday  evenings, 
and  was  continued  for  nearly  forty  years.  It  was  the  germ  from 
which  sprang,  in  1744,  the  venerable  and  learned  "American 
Philosophical  Society."  To  the  same  source  can  be  traced 
the  first  subscription  circulating  library  in  America,  which 
was  afterwards  incorporated,  in  1742,  under  the  name  of 
"The  Library  Company  of  Philadelphia. "  In  1736  Franklin 
was  unanimously  chosen  clerk  of  the  Pennsylvania  Assembly, 
and  held  this,  his  first  political  position,  during  the  next  year. 
He  was  then  elected  by  the  people  as  a  member  of  the  As- 
sembly, and  so  continued  for  ten  years.  In  1737  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  British  government  Deputy  Postmaster  at 
Philadelphia.  In  1738  he  organized  a  police  force  and  a  fire- 
company  for  that  city,  and  procured  the  paving  of  its  streets. 

In  spite  of  the  abundant  labor  involved  in  these  numerous 
public  duties  and  self-imposed  efforts  for  the  general  welfare, 
Franklin  prosecuted  many  physical  experiments.  The  most 
famous  of  these  is  his  grand  discovery  that  lightning,  the 
most  imposing  of  meteorological  phenomena,  is  identical 
with  the  harmless  electricity  which  is  produced  by  the 
rubbing  of  amber  (Greek,  electron).  The  remarkable  experi- 
ment by  which  he  successfully  proved  this  identity  has,  on 
account  of  its  danger,  rarely  been  repeated.  But  Franklin's 
thoroughly  practical  mind  did  not  rest  content  with  the  dis- 
covery of  scientific  truth.  He  proceeded  to  look  for  its 


BENJAMIN   FRANKUN.  349 

practical  application,  and  by  his  invention  of  lightning  con- 
ductors sought  to  save  property  from  the  destruction  to  which 
it  is  frequently  exposed.  Though  much  of  his  theory  about 
electricity,  or  the  electric  fluid  as  he  called  it,  has  been  super- 
seded by  later  researches,  the  fundamental  discovery  and  its 
important  application  remain  his  proudest  titles  to  fame. 

In  1748  Franklin,  whose  time  was  becoming  engrossed 
with  public  affairs,  took  David  Hall,  one  of  his  most  intelli- 
gent workmen,  into  partnership  in  the  printing  business,  and 
was  thus  released  from  its  active  management.  In  the  next 
year  he  was  the  leader  in  a  scheme  for  the  advancement  of 
education,  which,  starting  with  a  well-arranged  academy,  has 
grown  into  the  large  and  flourishing  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  plan  which  he  proposed  for  this  institution  in  its 
successive  stages  has  received  the  highest  commendation  from 
professional  educators  as  plainly  anticipating  many  improve- 
ments which  have  only  recently  been  introduced  into  practice. 
Before  this  scheme  was  fairly  developed,  Franklin's  public 
spirit  had  found  another  outlet  in  raising  subscriptions  and 
procuring  from  the  Legislature  an  auxiliary  grant  to  establish 
the  first  hospital  in  Pennsylvania.  This  institution  has  long 
been  recognized  as  a  model  in  every  department. 

In  1750  Franklin  was  appointed  to  his  first  public  mission, 
being  sent  to  negotiate  with  a  tribe  of  Indians;  and  in  this,  as 
in  all  his  diplomatic  missions,  he  was  eminently  successful. 
In  1753  he  was  appointed  by  the  Crown  Postmaster-General 
for  the  American  Colonies,  with  a  salary  of  ^300.  This  over- 
sight of  the  interests  of  several  Colonies  easily  led  the  way  to  his 
plan  for  a  union  of  the  Colonies  against  invasion  from  Canada, 
when  the  French  War  began  in  1754.  The  plan  was  approved 
by  the  first  Congress,  composed  of  deputies  from  six  Colonies 
or  Provinces,  which  met  at  Albany  in  1754.  But  the  attempt 
was  premature,  and  the  plan,  however  great  its  merits,  was 
rejected  by  the  colonial  assemblies,  as  well  as  by  the  British 
Government.  Eleven  years  later  a  more  successful  Congress 
was  held  in  New  York  City,  and  again,  after  an  interval  of  nine 
years,  came  the  First  Continental  Congress.  But  Franklin, 
who  had  started  the  movement,  was  in  England  while  these 
later  bodies  were  in  session. 


350  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

The  Proprietaries  of  Pennsylvania,  descendants  of  Wil- 
liam Penn,  claimed  immunity  from  taxation  on  the  large 
possessions  which  they  held.  The  Assembly,  pressed  by  the 
burdens  required  for  the  public  defence,  insisted  that  all  prop- 
erty and  property-holders  should  be  treated  alike.  The 
Governor,  being  appointed  by  the  Proprietaries  and  responsi- 
ble only  to  them,  vetoed  such  bills.  After  the  controversy 
had  continued  for  some  time  with  increasing  animosity, 
Franklin,  in  1757,  was  appointed  a  commissioner  to  visit 
England  and  present  the  case  of  the  people  and  Assembly. 
After  some  vexatious  delays  he  was  successful.  The  Penns 
gave  up  their  claim,  and  agreed  that  their  property  should 
bear  its  proper  share  of  taxation.  During  the  period  of  five 
years  thus  spent  in  England,  Franklin  received  many  honors 
from  learned  and  scientific  bodies.  The  Universities  of 
Oxford  and  St.  Andrews  conferred  on  him  their  highest 
degrees.  He  was  made  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  which 
thus  made  amends  for  its  former  refusal  to  print  in  its 
Transactions  an  account  of  his  electrical  experiments.  To 
the  "Annual  Register,"  of  which  Edmund  Burke  was  then 
editor,  Franklin  contributed  a  paper  on  ' '  The  Peopling 
of  Countries,"  which  called  forth  much  comment.  To 
Franklin's  advice  is  attributed  the  withdrawal  of  certain 
troops  from  the  Continent  of  Europe  and  the  sending  of  them 
against  the  French  in  Canada.  The  direct  result  of  this 
movement  was  the  permanent  transfer  of  that  dominion  from 
the  French  to  the  English. 

Franklin  returned  to  Pennsylvania  in  1762,  and  received 
from  the  Assembly  for  his  services  a  grant  of  ^5000.  In  1 764 
his  election  to  that  body  was  strongly  opposed  by  the  Proprie- 
tary party,  and  he  was  defeated  by  a  small  majority.  This 
victory  of  his  opponents,  however,  proved  a  Pyrrhic  one,  for 
he  was  again  appointed  by  the  Assembly  to  be  its  agent  in 
England.  He  sailed  November  i,  1765,  and  in  the  next 
year  he  was  called  to  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
underwent  a  memorable  examination,  which  greatly  increased 
his  political  fame.  He  defended  the  cause  of  the  American 
Colonies  with  firmness  and  moderation.  Had  the  Proprie- 
taries of  Pennsylvania  been  wise,  they  would  have 


BENJAMIN  FRANKL.IN.  351 

appointed  Franklin  Governor  of  that  Province,  and  have 
allowed  him  abundant  discretion  in  the  use  of  his  power. 
But  with  the  same  obstinacy  which  characterized  the  British 
Ministry,  they  refused  to  make  concessions  until  it  was  too 
late  for  their  own  interests. 

During  this  period  Franklin  paid  some  visits  to  the  Conti- 
nent of  Europe,  and  was  everywhere  received  with  the  most 
distinguished  and  respectful  consideration.  In  Paris  he  was 
introduced  to  many  of  the  literary  men;  was  elected  an  asso- 
ciate of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  was  presented  to  the 
King,  Louis  XV.,  and  his  sisters.  He  was  thus  prepared  for 
his  future  diplomatic  work  at  the  same  court. 

The  closing  of  the  port  of  Boston  in  1773,  and  the  quar- 
tering of  troops  in  that  town,  defeated  part  of  Franklin's 
mission.  He  was  at  this  time  agent  not  only  for  Pennsylva- 
nia, but  also  for  New  Jersey,  Georgia  and  Massachusetts.  He 
was  busily  engaged  in  presenting  their  remonstrances  not 
only  before  the  Ministry  and  Parliament,  but  before  the 
British  people,  whose  rights,  he  maintained,  were  involved 
in  the  treatment  accorded  to  the  Colonists.  At  length,  finding 
his  endeavors  to  secure  an  equitable  and  honorable  settlement 
of  the  difficulties  fruitless,  he  sailed  for  Philadelphia  on 
March  4,  1775.  The  day  after  he  landed  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Continental  Congress,  then  assembled.  Shortly 
after  he  had  entered  on  his  duties  there,  he  wrote  a  letter  to 
a  member  of  Parliament,  who  claimed  to  be  still  his  friend 
in  spite  of  political  differences,  which  is  worth  reproducing 
as  showing  his  spirit  and  his  wit : 

PHILADELPHIA,  July  5,  1775. 

MR.  STRAHAN,  You  are  a  member  of  that  Parliament,  and  have  formed 
part  of  that  majority,  which  has  condemned  my  native  country  to  destruc- 
tion. You  have  begun  to  burn  our  towns,  and  to  destroy  their  inhabitants. 

Look  at  your  hands !  They  are  stained  with  the  blood  of  your  relations 
and  your  acquaintances. 

You  and  I  were  long  friends.  You  are  at  present  my  enemy,  and  I  am 
yours,  BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN. 

In  the  next  year  Franklin  was  a  member  of  the  committee 
that  drafted  the  famous  Declaration  of  Independence,  of 
which  it  has  been  truthfully  said:— "The  burning  page  of 


352  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

Jefferson  bears  Franklin's  calmer  lines."  When  the  members 
were  about  to  vote  on  this  document,  Franklin's  ready  wit 
was  displayed  again.  "  We  must  be  unanimous,"  said  John 
Hancock,  the  President  of  Congress,  "  there  must  be  no 
pulling  different  ways  :  we  must  all  hang  together. "  "  Yes," 
said  Franklin,  "we  must  indeed  all  hang  together,  or  most 
assuredly  we  shall  all  hang  separately. ' ' 

The  British  ministry  had  now  begun  to  see  its  error  in  the 
harsh  treatment  of  the  Colonies.  Lord  Howe  was  sent  with 
full  powers  to  concede  everything  but  absolute  independence ; 
but  Franklin  and  the  other  Commissioners  whom  Congress 
had  appointed  to  confer  with  him  were  instructed  to  insist 
upon  this  basis,  and  the  negotiations  came  to  an  abrupt 
termination.  Franklin  was  next  despatched,  in  company  with 
Samuel  Chase  and  Rev.  John  Carroll,  to  persuade  the  French 
Canadians  to  join  the  American  cause.  These  people  had 
been  too  recently  brought  under  the  British  domination  to 
appreciate  the  causes  of  the  present  strife,  and  the  mission  was 
fruitless.  Franklin  returned  to  Philadelphia  to  become  presi- 
dent of  the  Convention  for  framing  a  State  Constitution  for 
Pennsylvania.  When  this  task  was  successfully  completed, 
the  veteran  statesman  was,  at  the  age  of  seventy,  sent  to 
France,  in  conjunction  with  Arthur  Lee  and  Silas  Deane,  to 
present  the  cause  of  the  United  States  to  the  favorable  con- 
sideration of  the  French  Government.  Deane  was  a  faithful 
helper,  and  Lee  was  a  captious  critic ;  but  Franklin  was  the 
effective  negotiator  who  obtained  from  the  French  Govern- 
ment the  material  aid  absolutely  necessary  to  the  success  of 
the  American  cause.  The  French  Government  was  finally 
induced  to  form  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  the 
United  States,  February  6th,  1778.  Franklin  had  fixed  his 
residence  at  Passy,  near  Paris,  and  his  political  engagements 
were  interspersed  and  even  furthered  by  his  attention  to 
science  and  by  various  publications,  which  were  the  constant 
subject  of  talk .  He  became  for  a  time  the  idol  of  the  French 
Court  and  people;  but  amid  all  the  acclamations  and  flatteries 
which  attended  him,  he  never  lost  the  practical  wisdom  which 
had  ever  distinguished  him,  nor  did  he  ever  neglect  the 
interests  of  his  country  to  promote  any  private  ends.  He 


BENJAMIN   FRANKUN.  353 

remained  in  France  until  England  was  brought  to  consent  to 
recognize  the  independence  of  her  late  Colonies.  The  defini- 
tive treaty  was  signed  on  September  30,  1783,  by  himself, 
and,  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  by  David  Hartley.  He 
continued  to  represent  the  United  States  at  the  French  Court 
for  two  years  more. 

At  last  Franklin  was  recalled  by  his  own  request,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Jefferson.  "  You  replace  Dr.  Franklin,  I  hear," 
said  the  Count  de  Vergennes  to  Jefferson,  when  they  first  met. 
"I  succeed  him;  no  one  can  replace  him,"  was  Jefferson's 
significant  and  magnanimous  reply. 

Franklin,  on  his  return,  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Supreme  Executive  Council  of  Pennsylvania,  and  was  soon 
made  its  President.  In  1787  he  was  one  of  the  delegates 
from  that  State  in  the  convention  called  to  frame  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States.  His  long  experience  in 
statesmanship  and  his  acknowledged  practical  wisdom  were 
constantly  brought  into  requisition  in  the  arduous  task  of 
forming  a  permanent  Federal  Union.  His  last  political  act 
was  an  address  to  his  colleagues  entreating  them  to  sacrifice 
their  own  private  views  with  regard  to  various  details  on 
which  they  desired  amendments,  for  the  sake  of  unanimity 
in  recommending  to  the  people  the  new  Constitution  as  deter- 
mined by  the  majority.  He  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  this 
document  ratified  by  a  sufficient  number  of  States  to  give  it 
vitality,  and  of  witnessing  a  revival  of  prosperity  after  the 
depression  and  exhaustion  of  the  Revolutionary  War. 

Franklin's  last  printed  essay  appeared  in  the  Federal 
Gazette  of  March,  1789,  and  was  signed  "  Historicus. "  After 
a  short  illness,  he  died  April  I7th,  1790,  at  the  age  of  84. 
He  was  buried  in  Christ  Church  Cemetery  in  Philadelphia, 
where  a  small  marble  slab,  level  with  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  close  to  a  busy  street,  bears  the  simple  inscription— 
BENJAMIN  AND  DEBORAH  FRANKLIN. 

Franklin's  son,  William  Temple,  was  the  Royal  Governoi 
of  New  Jersey  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  and,  to  the  grief 
of  his  father,  adhered  to  the  Royal  cause.  He  subsequently 
fixed  his  residence  in  England. 

Franklin  made  various  bequests  and  donations  to  cities, 

23 


354  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

public  bodies  and  individuals.  Among  his  papers,  written 
when  he  was  but  twenty-three  years  of  age,  was  found  this 
original  epitaph : — 

THE  BODY 

OF 

BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN, 
PRINTER, 

(LIKE  THE  COVER  OF  AN  OLD  BOOK, 

ITS  CONTENTS  TORN  OUT 
AND  STRIPPED  OF  ITS  LETTERING  AND  GILDING) 

LIES  HERE  FOOD  FOR  WORMS  ; 

YET  THE  WORK  ITSELF  SHALL  NOT  BE  LOST, 

FOR  IT  WILL  (AS  HE  BELIEVED)  APPEAR  ONCE  MORB 

IN  A  NEW 

AND  MORE  BEAUTIFUL  EDITION 
CORRECTED  AND  AMENDED 

BY 
THE  AUTHOR. 

It  is  rare  that  a  single  mind  establishes  claims  so  various 
as  those  of  Benjamin  Franklin.  Unceasing  industry,  perse- 
verance, business-like  habits,  general  information  and  readi- 
ness in  the  use  of  his  pen,  secured  to  him  a  large  circle  of 
friends,  and  raised  him  from  poverty  to  affluence.  He  was 
bold,  speculative  and  inquiring  in  physical  as  well  as  in  meta- 
physical science.  He  carried  into  public  life  the  same  char- 
acteristics which  had  marked  his  private  career,  and  by 
honesty,  fair  dealing  and  a  zealous  and  patriotic  spirit,  he 
achieved  the  highest  success  as  a  statesman  and  diplomatist. 
A  sincere  believer  in  the  equal  rights  of  all  men,  he  estimated 
at  their  true  worth  the  various  distinctions  which  he  found 
introduced  into  the  civilized  nations  and  polite  society  of 
Europe.  In  his  personal  bearing  Franklin  was  sedate  and 
weighty.  He  had  no  stately  eloquence  ;  he  spoke  and  wrote 
sententiously.  Men  instinctively  felt  his  worth,  and  submitted 
themselves  to  his  wisdom.  ' '  Seest  thou  a  man  diligent  in 
his  business?  He  shall  stand  before  kings." 

"His  country,"  says  Bigelow,  "owes  much  to  Franklin 
for  his  service  in  various  public  capacities ;  the  world  owes 
much  to  the  fruits  of  his  pen ;  but  his  greatest  contribution 


BENJAMIN   FRANKLIN.  355 

to  the  welfare  of  mankind,  probably,  was  what  he  did  by  his 
example  and  life  to  dignify  manual  labor.  While  Diderot 
was  teaching  the  dignity  of  labor  in  France  and  the  folly  of 
social  standards  that  proscribed  it,  Franklin  was  illustrating 
it  in  America,  and  proving  by  his  own  most  conclusive  exam- 
ple that  'Honor  and  fame  from  no  condition  rise.'  There 
are  few  born  into  this  world  so  ill-conditioned  that  they  can- 
not find  comfort  and  encouragement  from  some  portion  of  the 
life  of  Franklin ;  none  of  any  station  who  may  not  meditate 
on  it  with  advantage. ' ' 

FRANKLIN'S  DIPLOMACY. 

Franklin  shook  the  dust  of  England  from  his  feet,  as  a 
subject  of  King  George,  when  he  set  sail  for  America  in  1775. 
When  he  returned  to  Europe,  it  was  to  watch  and  to  baffle 
from  Passy  the  clumsy  efforts  of  British  ministers  to  make  a 
solitude  where  they  had  failed  to  maintain  peace.  He  was  so 
far  a  diplomatist  that  he  had  studied  human  character  for 
seventy  years.  Yet  in  England  his  diplomacy  had  only  exas- 
perated. In  France  he  accomplished  as  much  against  Eng- 
land as  Washington  with  all  his  victories.  His  knowledge  of 
French  was  so  indifferent  that  on  one  occasion,  during  the  sit- 
ting of  the  Academy,  he  was  observed  to  "applaud  the  loudest 
at  his  own  praises."  He  did  the  work,  but  he  never  learned 
the  dialect  of  diplomacy.  He  was  that  strange  creature — a 
republican  at  the  court  of  a  pure  monarchy.  In  Paris  his 
defects  were  virtues.  His  scientific  fame  spoke  for  itself  in 
purest  Parisian  French.  As  a  politician,  to  the  court  he  was 
the  dire  enemy  of  England  ;  to  the  jaded  society  of  Paris  he 
was*  the  representative  of  a  new  world  of  feeling  and  thought. 
His  New  England  astuteness  seemed  to  Parisian  courtiers 
patriarchal  innocence.  His  naive  stories  and  illustrations, 
which  a  thousand  admirers  were  ready  to  translate  and  repeat 
in  every  circle  of  the  town,  were  as  bracing  as  quinine.  His 
very  costume,  "his  hair  hanging,  his  spectacles  on  his  nose, 
his  white  hose  and  white  hat  under  his  arm,"  in  the  midst  of 
absurd  perukes  and  brocaded  suits,  came  like  a  revelation  of 
nature  to  the  victims  of  fashion.  He  became,  to  his  own 
amusement,  tb e  idol  of  Paris.  ' '  Mr.  Franklin, ' '  writes  a  con- 


356  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

temporary  Parisian,  "is  besieged,  followed,  admired,  adored, 
wherever  he  shows  himself,  with  a  fury,  a  fanaticism,  capable 
no  doubt  of  flattering  him  and  doing  him  honor,  but  which 
at  the  same  time  proves  that  we  shall  never  be  reasonable." 
He  tells  his  daughter  that  there  have  been  sold  incredible 
numbers  of  clay  medallions  of  him,  "some  to  be  set  in  the 
lids  of  snuff-boxes,  and  some  so  small  as  to  be  worn  in  rings. ' ' 
"Pictures,  busts  and  prints  have  made  your  father's  face  as 
well  known  as  that  of  the  moon."  Versailles  was  never 
perhaps  quite  certain  that  the  New  England  philosopher  was 
not  of  red  Indian  descent.  But  love  does  not  reason.  Paris 
had  fallen  in  love  with  Franklin,  and  in  homage  to  him  even 
grew  enamored  of  simplicity. 

No  Englishman  was  ever  so  caressed  in  Paris,  for  the  very 
reason  that  Franklin  was  and  was  not  an  Englishman.  As 
the  American  sage  and  philosopher,  he  performed  as  much 
for  his  country  as  he  accomplished  by  his  diplomatic  skill. 
But  he  was  a  diplomatist,  too,  and  of  high  rank  in  the  art. 
Colleagues  and  rivals,  like  his  detractor  Arthur  Lee,  or  even 
Jay  and  Adams,  who,  as  Mr.  Fitzherbert  wrote,  "rather  fear 
than  are  attached  to  him,"  might  be  pardoned  for  inability  to 
understand  the  source  of  his  influence.  They  did  not  venture 
to  deny  the  fact.  In  the  only  serious  instance  in  which,  in 
reference  to  the  disputed  fishery  and  boundary  rights,  he  was 
accused  of  neglecting  the  interests  of  his  countrymen,  his 
colleagues  certified  that  he  had  defended  those  interests  with 
his  counsels  and  his  authority.  On  another  and  more 
important  point,  he  not  merely  co-operated,  but  took  the 
initiative. 

A  man  who  had  gone  through  the  campaign  with  Brad- 
dock,  who  had  shared  in  the  apprehensions  and  labors  of  the 
crisis  which  followed  the  defeat  of  Braddock,  and  exulted  in 
the  triumph  of  Wolfe,  was  not  likely  to  depreciate  the  value 
of  Canada.  When  the  war  commenced,  he  sought  to  induce 
France  to  help  the  Colonies  to  wrest  Canada  and  Nova 
Scotia  from  England.  As  soon  as  the  negotiations  for  peace 
with  England  opened,  his  great  efforts  were  directed  to  per- 
suade the  English  commissioner,  Richard  Oswald,  to  see  the 
utility  of  ceding  those  territories  as  proofs  of  a  desire  for 


BENJAMIN   FRANKUN.  357 

that  "sweet"  thing,  a  "reconciliation,"  and  as  a  safeguard 
against  future  causes  of  strife.  Oswald,  a  prosperous  Scotch 
merchant  was,  as  Franklin  says  of  him,  an  old  man  who  had 
"nothing  at  heart  but  the  good  of  mankind,  and  putting  a 
stop  to  mischief."  But  he  does  not  seem  to  have  been  fit  to 
cope  with  a  consummate  philanthropist  like  Franklin.  He 
had  happened  to  let  fall  an  opinion  that  "the  giving  up  of 
Canada  to  the  English  at  the  last  peace  had  been  a  politic 
act  in  France,  for  that  it  had  weakened  the  ties  between 
England  and  her  colonies,  and  that  he  himself  had  predicted 
from  it  the  late  revolution. ' '  Franklin  had  already  developed 
a  scheme  on  paper  which  he  lent  Oswald  to  read  and  meditate 
upon.  The  plan  was  that  ' '  Britain  should  voluntarily  offer 
to  give  up  the  Province,  though  on  these  conditions,  that  she 
shall  in  all  times  coming  have  and  enjoy  the  right  of  free 
trade  thither,  unencumbered  with  any  duties  whatsoever  ;  that 
so  much  of  the  vacant  lands  shall  be  sold  as  will  raise  a  sum 
sufficient  to  pay  for  the  houses  burned  by  the  British  troops 
and  their  Indians,  and  also  to  indemnify  the  royalists  for  the 
confiscation  of  their  estates."  Oswald,  he  says,  "told  me  that 
nothing  in  his  judgment  could  be  clearer,  more  satisfactory 
and  convincing  than  the  reasonings  in  that  paper ;  that  he 
would  do  his  utmost  to  impress  Lord  Shelburne  with  them." 
Franklin,  in  reporting  by  letter  this  conversation  to  his 
brother  Peace-Commissioner  Adams,  describes  Oswald's 
remarks  rather  more  fully  than  in  the  semi-official  journal 
he  kept.  He  tells  Adams  on  April  20,  1782,  his  proposal 
about  Canada  :  "  Mr.  Oswald  liked  much  the  idea,  but  said 
they  were  too  much  straitened  for  money  to  make  any  pecu- 
niary reparation ;  but  he  should  endeavor  to  persuade  theii 
doing  it  this  way."  Oswald  went  to  England  to  confer  with 
Lord  Shelburne,  taking  Franklin's  paper  with  him.  On  his 
return  to  Paris,  he  informed  Franklin  that  "  it  seemed  to  have 
made  an  impression,  and  he  had  reason  to  believe  that  it 
might  be  settled  to  our  satisfaction  toward  the  end  of  the 
treaty  ;  but  in  his  own  mind  he  wished  it  might  not  be  men- 
tioned at  the  beginning  ;  that  his  lordship  indeed  said  he  had 
not  imagined  reparation  would  be  expected,  and  he  wondered 
I  should  not  know  whether  it  was  intended  to  demand  it." 


358  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS- 

But  it  has  now  been  proved  by  the  publication  of  the 
French  dispatches,  that  no  one  was  more  bitterly  opposed 
than  the  French  Ministers  to  the  annexation  of  Canada  to 
the  United  States.  Eager  as  they  were  to  promote  the  separ- 
ation of  the  British  Provinces  in  America  from  the  mother 
country,  M.  de  Vergennes  was  entirely  opposed  to  any  exten- 
sion of  the  emancipated  territory  ;  and  he  perhaps  still  cher- 
ished a  hope  that  the  French  Provinces  in  America,  which 
had  been  conquered  by  England  only  twenty  years  before, 
might  one  day  be  brought  back  to  their  allegiance  to  the 
Court  of  Versailles. 

Franklin,  as  a  diplomatist,  was  not  peremptory  in  insist- 
ing on  the  rights  of  his  country,  still  less  on  his  own  dignity. 
But  he  studied  the  French  men  and  the  French  women  who 
ruled  France,  and  he  probed  to  the  bottom  the  instincts  of 
the  French  governing  class,  without  losing  his  own.  About 
alliances  in  general  he  was  not  solicitous.  Before  he  started 
on  his  own  mission  to  Europe  he  had  in  Congress,  though  in 
vain,  deprecated  the  sending  a  ' '  virgin ' '  republic  ' '  suitor- 
ing"  for  the  friendship  of  European  powers.  "It  seems  to 
me,"  he  writes,  "that  we  have  in  most  instances  hurt  our 
credit  and  importance  by  sending  all  over  Europe,  begging 
alliances,  and  soliciting  declarations  of  our  independence. 
The  nations,  perhaps,  from  thence  seemed  to  think  that  our 
independence  is  something  they  have  to  sell,  and  that  we  do 
not  offer  enough  for  it."  Writing  to  Jay,  at  Madrid,  in  April, 
1782,  he  exclaims :  ' '  Spain  has  taken  four  years  to  consider 
whether  she  should  treat  with  us  or  not.  Give  her  forty,  and 
let  us  in  the  meantime  mind  our  own  business." 

In  fact,  he  cared  little  for  other  European  alliances  than 
the  American  alliance  with  France.  To  cement  that  he  was 
ready  to  be  all  complaisance.  His  tact  alone  prevented  a 
rupture  with  the  French  ministers  through  the  signature,  in 
December,  1782,  behind  their  backs,  of  the  preliminary  treaty 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  His  brother 
commissioners,  Jay  and  Adams,  suspected  that  the  French 
Government  wished  to  protract  the  negotiations  for  its  own 
objects,  however  the  United  States  might  suffer  by  the  pro- 
longation of  the  war.  Their  suspicion  was  not  without 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN.  359 

foundation;  and  Franklin,  when  he  understood  the  facts, 
acquiesced  in  their  decision  to  proceed  independently.  But 
he  had  the  wisdom,  which  his  colleagues  lacked,  to  be  con- 
tent with  starting  peace  on  its  route  without  breaking  down 
the  bridge  by  which  it  had  crossed  before  he  knew  whether  it 
might  not  be  useful  for  a  retreat.  To  the  French  minister's 
reproaches  for  the  departure  from  good-fellowship,  he  replied 
by  the  soft  answer  which  turneth  away  wrath.  He  defends 
himself,  and  Jay  and  Adams,  against  the  charge  of  anything 
worse  than  "indiscretion"  and  "neglect  of  a  point  of  bien- 
seance"  To  those  two  offences  he  pleads  guilty.  But  he 
warns  M.  de  Vergennes  not  to  forget  the  effect  of  a  quarrel 
upon  ' '  the  English,  who,  I  just  now  learn,  flatter  themselves 
they  have  already  divided  us." 

The  friendly  relations  of  France  and  the  United  States 
had  seemed  in  danger  of  being  completely  overclouded  when 
Franklin's  amiable  apologies  restored  peace.  Two  days  after 
the  French  ministerial  remonstrance,  the  United  States 
actually  received  from  the  French  treasury  a  loan  of  six 
million  francs,  which  infused  new  life  into  their  military 
operations.  Jay  and  Adams,  "  who, "  alleges  M.  de  Vergennes, 
* '  do  not  pretend  to  recognize  the  rules  of  courtesy  in  regard 
to  us,"  could  never  have  obtained  that  aid.  Franklin's 
brother  commissioners  underrated  the  gain  to  the  United 
States  from  French  succor.  Without  the  diversion  France 
created  in  Europe,  and  the  subsidies  she  granted,  it  is  almost 
incredible  that  the  Congress  should  not  have  been  compelled 
to  make  a  humiliating  peace  with  King  George.  Franklin 
understood  that  the  French  alliance  was  vital  to  his  people, 
and  he  spared  no  pains  that  he  might  confirm  it.  As  Jefferson 
said  of  him,  in  extolling  his  diplomatic  dexterity,  he,  by  his 
reasonableness,  moderation  and  temper,  so  won  the  confidence 
of  the  French  ministers  that  "  it  may  truly  be  said  they  were 
more  under  his  influence  than  he  under  theirs." 

Franklin  did  not  see  the  instability  of  that  charming 
Parisian  society  to  which  he  discoursed  in  his  shrewdly  witty 
parables.  We  suspect  that  he  only  affected  not  to  perceive 
the  selfish  motives  at  the  bottom  of  the  invaluable  assistance 
the  French  nation  and  government  afforded  his  country. 


360 


HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 


Chivalrous  Frenchmen  like  Lafayette,  in  advocating  the 
American  cause,  were  more  protesting  against  court  absolu- 
tism at  home  than  against  the  imperial  tyranny  of  Great 
Britain.  Frenchmen  generally  and  their  rulers,  when  they 
succored  the  United  States,  were  merely  fighting,  as  they  had 
fought  a  generation  earlier,  England  in  America.  They 
longed  to  recover  Canada.  When  they  had  convinced  them- 
selves that  their  American  allies  would  not  consent  to  their 
return  as  sovereigns  to  any  part  of  the  North  American  con- 
tinent, they  liked  better  to  leave  their  old  dominions  in  the 
hands  of  England  than  struggle  for  their  transfer  to  the  eman- 
cipated British  colonies.  While  Great  Britain  remained  still 
a  neighbor,  they  believed  the  Republic  would  not  be  able  to 
dispense  with  the  shelter  of  French  protection.  Franklin, 
who  gauged  human  motives,  especially  when  not  altogether 
noble,  with  unerring  sagacity,  was  possibly  more  desirous  to 
convince  Robert  Livingston  than  himself  convinced,  when 
he  wrote :  ' '  The  ideas  of  aggrandizement  by  conquest  are 
out  of  fashion.  The  wise  here  think  France  great  enough  ; 
and  its  ambition  at  present  seems  to  be  only  that  of  justice 
and  magnanimity  toward  other  nations,  fidelity  and  utility 
to  its  allies." — EDINBURGH  REVIEW. 


• 


GUIS  IX,  of  France,  whom  Mignet  calls 
"the  most  religious  and  the  most  just 
of  men,"  was  born  at  Poissy,  April  25, 
1215.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Louis 
VIII,  on  the  throne,  in  November, 
1226,  when  a  boy  of  twelve,  under  the 
regency  of  his  noble  mother,  Blanche 
of  Castile.  It  was  a  critical  time  for  the 
cause  of  royalty  in  France,  for  the  feudal 

lords  were  eager  to  curtail  its  growing  power  again.  The 
queen-widow  hastened  to  have  her  boy  crowned  at  Rheirns, 
and  caused  the  first  attempt  at  revolt  of  the  disaffected  nobles 
to  fall  flat.  She  gained  their  leader,  Theobald,  Count  of 
Champagne,  and  others,  for  her  cause,  and  when  the  barons 
assembled  at  Corbeil,  to  seize  the  young  King  on  his  passage 
from  Orleans  to  Paris,  she  prudently  stopped  at  Montlheri, 
and  sent  for  help  to  the  Parisians,  who  came  out  in  mass  and 
compelled  the  Confederates  to  beat  a  retreat  (February,  1227). 
After  some  years  of  conflict  with  the  nobles,  their  league  was 
broken  up  by  the  Treaty  of  St.  Aubin  de  Cormier  (1231). 
But  the  struggle  of  the  barons  and  the  great  feudal  bishops 
against  the  King  was  not  definitely  ended  until  1242,  at  which 
time  also  Raymond  VII,  who  had  come  to  terms  in  the  Treaty 
of  Meaux  in  1229,  made  one  more  attempt  to  secure  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  South.  He  was  unsuccessful,  however,  and 
the  King  received  him  on  the  terms  of  the  old  treaty. 

During  the  earlier  years  of  the  King's  reign,  his  mother, 
while  triumphing  over  her  formidable  foes,  instilled  into  the 
mind  of  her  sickly  son  the  religious  sentiment  and  conscien- 

361 


362  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

tiousness,  the  nobility  and  honesty  of  purpose,  the  justice  and 
self-denial  which  won  for  him  the  admiration  of  his  fellow- 
men,  and  the  appellation  "Saint. "  (The  latter  is  more  than  a 
mere  name  bestowed  in  gratitude  and  respect,  for  he  was 
canonized  by  Boniface  VIII  in  1297.)  The  nobility  of  his 
character  is  shown  in  many  of  his  subsequent  acts.  His  firm 
stand  against  the  clergy,  whenever  they  were  in  the  wrong, 
his  upright  conduct  towards  Frederick  II,  of  Germany,  in  the 
face  of  Gregory  IX' s  fierce  opposition  to  the  Emperor,  who 
had  been  excommunicated;  his  support  of  the  barons  in  their 
efforts  to  restrict  the  jurisdiction  of  the  clergy,  his  bold 
attack  on  feudal  rights, — forbidding  judicial  combats  and 
private  warfare,  limiting  feudal  jurisdiction  and  instituting  a 
right  of  appeal  to  the  King  in  all  cases, — his  firmness  and 
gentleness  when  held  a  prisoner  by  the  Saracens,  his  unselfish 
devotion  to  his  crusaders  and  fellow-captives,  all  serve  to 
emphasize  his  clear  sense  of  justice. 

In  1234  Louis  was  married  to  Margaret,  daughter  of  Ray- 
mond Berenger,  Count  of  Provence ;  but  the  young  princess 
suffered  much  from  the  imperious  character  of  her  mother-in- 
law,  who  was  jealous  of  any  other  influence  but  her  own,  so 
that  the  young  people  were  obliged  to  meet  by  stealth.  Yet 
even  after  taking  the  reins  of  government  in  his  hands,  in 
1236,  on  attaining  his  majority,  the  King  still  submitted  to 
his  mother. 

There  was  peace  in  the  young  king's  land,  but  strife  and 
discord  without,  and  his  sense  of  justice  was  brought  into 
strong  relief  by  the  part  he  played  in  international  affairs,  as, 
for  instance,  in  the  great  struggle  between  Pope  Gregory  IX 
and  Frederic  II,  of  Germany.  When  the  Saracens,  hard 
pressed  by  the  Tartars,  who  were  threatening  Europe,  had 
made  an  unsuccessful  appeal  to  France  and  England  for  help, 
the  Germans  met  the  invading  hordes  at  the  Danube  and  drove 
them  back.  But  this  great  service  to  Christendom  did  not 
prevent  the  Pontiff  from  excommunicating  the  Emperor  and 
offering  his  crown  to  Louis  for  his  brother,  Robert  of  Artois. 
Saint  Louis,  however,  refused  it  in  vigorous  language,  criti- 
cising the  Pope's  action  and  defending  Frederick.  And  this 
course  of  wise  impartiality  he  always  consistently  pursued. 


LOUIS  IX.  363 

In  1241  his  attempt  to  make  his  brother,  Alphonse,  Lord  of 
Poitou  and  Auvergne  aroused  the  resistance  of  the  nobles,  who 
gained  the  aid  of  Henry  III,  of  England ;  but  Louis  fell  upon 
them  vigorously,  and  brought  them  to  terms.  Not  long  after, 
he  declared  that  all  barons  holding  fiefs,  under  himself  and  also 
under  the  King  of  England,  would  have  to  choose  between 
them,  and  nearly  all  cast  their  fortunes  with  his.  During  this 
time,  also,  Raymond  VII  made  his  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
regain  the  independence  of  the  South,  and  in  1244  the  long 
and  horrible  persecution  of  the  Albigenses  closed  with  their 
total  extinction. 

In  the  meanwhile,  the  devout  King  had  been  preparing 
tor  the  great  act  of  his  reign,  the  Crusade.  The  Pope  tried  in 
vain  to  turn  him  from  his  purpose  and  obtain  protection  from 
him  against  the  Emperor  Frederic,  and  in  the  summer  of  1248 
Louis  set  sail  from  Aigues  Mortes.  After  eight  months  spent 
at  Cyprus,  the  rendezvous,  the  expedition  pressed  on  to 
Egypt,  for  there  was  centered  the  power  of  the  Moslems.  In 
June,  1249,  a  landing  was  effected,  and  the  town  of  Damietta 
taken.  So  far  all  had  gone  well,  and  the  time  was  propitious 
for  prompt  and  decisive  action,  for  discord  reigned  among  the 
enemy.  But  the  King  delayed,  waiting  for  the  waters  of  the 
Nile  to  fall,  and  when  he  finally  set  out,  five  and  one-half 
months  later,  disease  and  disorganization  had  overtaken  his 
army.  Mansourah  was  reached  after  more  unnecessary  waste 
of  time  and  men.  The  Saracens,  at  first  driven  back,  soon 
rallied,  and  gave  the  Christians  fierce  battle.  It  was  a  hotly 
contested  day ;  but  the  valor  of  the  gallant  knights  could  not 
compensate  for  the  want  of  concerted  action  and  of  a  capable 
commander.  Three  days  later  the  Christians  succeeded  in 
beating  off  an  attack  only  after  terrible  loss,  and  then  more 
dangerous  delays  ensued  :  the  dead  were  buried  and  Lent  was 
rigorously  kept.  Disease  spread,  and  the  King,  who  refused 
to  leave  his  men,  fell  ill  and  was  taken  prisoner.  The  com- 
mon soldiers  were  butchered  by  the  Saracens;  the  King 
finally  agreed  to  cede  Damietta,  pay  a  million  bezants,*  and 
keep  a  ten  years'  truce  in  return  for  his  freedom,  and  that  of 

*A  gold  coin,  deriving  its  name  from  Byzantium,  and  worth  not  quite 
ten  English  shillings,  or  $2.50. 


364  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

his  barons.  With  the  sad  remnant  of  his  army  he  made  his 
way  to  the  Holy  Land,  landing  at  Ptolemais.  Sickness  over- 
took them,  and  the  King's  two  brothers  returned  to  France. 
Pope  Innocent,  like  all  of  Europe,  bewailed  the  danger  of 
Louis,  but  instead  of  aiding  him  invoked  help  in  his  work  of 
crushing  the  Hohenstaufen.  But  that  was  refused  by  France 
in  indignant  and  vigorous  terms.  Meanwhile,  the  King 
spent  four  years  in  Palestine,  agitating  for  the  release  of  the 
prisoners  in  Egypt,  and  strengthening  the  slight  hold  which 
the  Christians  had  in  the  Orient.  On  the  death  of  his  mother 
he  returned  to  France,  reaching  Paris  in  September,  1254. 

For  over  fifteen  years  he  now  proved  a  power  for  good  at 
home  by  his  firmness,  justice  and  devout  spirit.  He  made 
treaties  with  King  James  of  Aragon  in  1258,  and  Henry  of 
England  in  1259,  giym&  UP  various  districts  for  the  sake  of 
peace,  built  many  benevolent  institutions  and  churches,  and 
ruled  his  country  wisely  and  justly,  so  that  peace  and  plenty 
reigned  in  his  dominions.  But  his  great  passion  proved  too 
strong :  he  took  the  cross  again  in  1267,  despite  the  advice  of 
prudent  counselors,  and  after  three  years'  preparation,  set 
sail  in  1270  for  Tunis,  in  Northern  Africa.  After  he  had 
landed  there,  however,  disease  overtook  the  army,  and  he, 
being  extremely  weak,  proved  an  easy  prey  to  dysentery, 
succumbing  August  25,  1 270. 

Such  was  the  end  of  this  truthful,  honorable  and  chival- 
rous King,  the  last  great  crusader,  uthe  most  loyal  man  of 
his  age. ' '  Devout  almost  to  superstition,  he  could  persecute 
like  a  zealot  in  the  manner  of  his  time,  and  yet  faced  the 
Pope  and  his  subordinates  boldly,  when  he  thought  them  in 
the  wrong.  Modest  and  gentle  in  his  ways,  he  was  yet 
always  firm  when  he  felt  that  he  was  in  the  right.  He  was 
not  skilled  in  the  art  of  warfare  :  to  his  poor  generalship  was 
largely  due  the  failure  of  his  ill-fated  first  crusade.  But  he 
was  unselfish  and  self-denying :  he  confronted  death  to  stand 
by  his  men.  Saint  Louis  did  much  for  his  country :  he 
enlarged  the  extent  of  the  kingdom  by  conquest  as  well  as  by 
purchase;  reformed  the  law;  centralized  the  powers  of  govern- 
ment, both  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  in  every  way;  established 
a  better  currency;  and  if,  as  the  founder  of  absolute  monarchy 


LOUIS  IX.  365 

in  France,  he  was  ultimately  the  cause  of  much  distress,  yet 
this  was  the  only  road  to  national  greatness.  Such  was  this 
"king  of  kings,"  as  Matthew  Paris  styled  him,  whose  many 
sterling  qualities  could  win  the  approbation  even  of  a  Voltaire. 
For  that  cynic  wrote  of  him,  "Louis  IX  seemed  a  prince 
destined  to  reform  Europe,  had  that  been  possible ;  he  made 
France  triumphant  and  gave  it  a  definite  policy,  and  he  was 
in  everything  a  model  man.  His  piety,  which  was  that  of  an 
anchorite,  did  not  prevent  him  from  having  royal  virtues;  his 
liberality  did  not  affect  his  wise  economy ;  he  was  able  to 
bring  profound  statecraft  into  accord  with  strict  justice,  and 
is  possibly  the  only  sovereign  who  merits  this  praise." 

THE  EGYPTIAN  CRUSADE  OF  ST.  Louis. 

It  was  not  a  mere  war,  an  expedition,  which  St.  Louis 
projected,  but  the  foundation  of  a  great  colony  in  Egypt. 
The  idea  of  that  day  was,  and  not  unsupported  by  probability, 
that  to  conquer  and  keep  possession  of  the  Holy  Land  it  was 
essential  to  have  Egypt  to  rest  upon.  Thus  he  carried  with 
him  a  large  quantity  of  agricultural  implements  and  tools  of 
every  kind.  In  order  to  maintain  a  regular  communication, 
he  desiderated  a  port  of  his  own  on  the  Mediterranean — and, 
as  the  Provengal  harbors  belonged  to  his  brother,  Charles  of 
Anjou,  he  formed  that  of  Aigues-Mortes. 

He  first  sailed  to  Cyprus,  where  he  took  in  an  immense 
stock  of  provisions,  and  where  he  made  a  long  stay,  either 
waiting  for  his  brother  Alphonse,  who  headed  his  reserve,  or 
perhaps  to  train  himself  to  an  eastern  clime  in  this  new  world. 
Here  he  was  amused  by  watching  the  ambassadors  of  the 
Asiatic  princes,  who  came  to  observe  the  great  King  of  the 
Franks.  First,  came  those  of  the  Christians,  from  Constan- 
tinople, Armenia  and  Syria ;  those  of  the  Mussulmans,  and, 
among  others,  the  envoys  of  that  Old  Man  of  the  Mountain, 
of  whom  there  ran  so  many  stories.  Even  the  Mongols  sent 
their  representatives;  and  St.  Louis,  who  supposed  them 
favorable  to  Christianity  from  their  hate  to  the  other  Mahom- 
etans, entered  into  a  league  with  them  against  the  two  popes 
of  Islamism — the  Caliphs  of  Bagdad  and  of  Cairo. 

When  the  Asiatics  had  recovered  from  their  first  fears, 


366  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

they  grew  familiar  with  the  idea  of  the  great  invasion  of  the 
Franks  ;  who  were  becoming  enervated  by  the  abundance  and 
seductions  of  a  tempting  clime.  At  length  the  King  deter- 
mined on  setting  out  for  Egypt,  and  had  the  choice  of  Dami- 
etta  or  of  Alexandria  as  a  landing-place.  Borne  by  a  gale 
towards  the  first,  he  attacked  in  all  haste  and  leaped  into  the 
water,  sword  in  hand.  The  light  troops  of  the  Saracens,  who 
were  drawn  up  on  the  shore,  tried  one  or  two  charges,  but 
finding  the  Franks  immovable,  they  fled  at  full  gallop.  The 
strong  town  of  Damietta,  which  might  have  held  out,  surren- 
dered on  the  first  alarm.  Master  of  such  a  place,  the  next 
step  was  an  immediate  attack  on  Alexandria  or  Cairo.  But 
the' same  faith  which  inspired  the  crusade,  led  to  the  neglect 
of  the  human  means  which  would  have  secured  its  success. 
Besides,  the  King,  a  feudal  king,  no  doubt  was  unable  to 
force  his  followers  from  the  plunder  of  a  rich  city.  It  was  a 
repetition  of  Cyprus ;  they  only  allowed  themselves  to  be 
drawn  off  when  wearied  of  their  own  excesses.  There  was 
another  excuse ;  Alphonse  and  the  reserve  had  not  arrived. 

The  Count  of  Brittany,  Mauclerc,  already  experienced  in 
Eastern  warfare,  advised  Alexandria's  being  first  secured  ;  the 
King  insisted  on  making  for  Cairo.  This  led  to  the  army's 
plunging  into  that  country,  intersected  with  canals,  and  fol- 
lowing that  route  which  had  been  so  fatal  to  John  de  Brienne. 
The  march  was  singularly  slow.  Instead  of  throwing  bridges 
over  the  canals,  they  made  a  causeway  across  each ;  and  they 
thus  took  a  month  to  march  the  ten  leagues  between  Damietta 
and  Mansourah,  to  gain  which  latter  town  they  undertook  a 
dike  which  was  to  stem  the  current  of  the  Nile,  and  afford 
them  a  passage.  During  this  labor,  they  suffered  fearfully 
from  the  Greek  fire  directed  against  them  by  the  Saracens,  and 
which,  cased  in  their  armor  as  they  were,  burned  them  beyond 
the  possibility  of  relief.  Fifty  days  were  consumed,  when 
they  learned  that  they  might  have  spared  themselves  all  the 
labor  and  trouble;  a  Bedouin  showed  them  a  ford  (Feb.  8th). 

The  vanguard,  led  by  Robert  of  Artois,  effected  the  pass- 
age with  some  difficulty.  The  Templars,  who  happened  to 
be  with  him,  recommended  his  waiting  until  his  brother 
should  come  up ;  but  the  fiery  youth  scorned  their  advice  as 


I.OUIS   IX.  367 

that  of  cowards,  and  spurred  into  the  town  like  a  madman 
through  the  open  gates.  He  allowed  his  horse  to  be  led  by  a 
brave  knight  who  was  deaf,  and  who  cried  out,  with  a  stun- 
ning voice,  ' '  Upon  them,  upon  them,  down  with  the  enemy  ! " 
The  Templars  dared  not  remain  behind :  all  entered,  all  per- 
ished. The  Mamelukes,  recovered  from  their  surprise,  barri- 
caded the  streets  and  crushed  the  assailants  from  the  windows. 

The  King,  as  yet  ignorant  of  what  had  befallen,  crossed 
over  and  encountered  the  Saracens.  He  fought  valiantly. 
"There,  where  I  was  on  foot  with  my  knights, "  says  Joinville, 
"the  King  came,  wounded,  with  all  his  battle,  and  with  great 
sound  and  noise  of  trumpets  and  nakers,  and  halted  on  a  raised 
way ;  but  never  was  so  goodly  a  man  at  arms  seen,  for  he 
topped  all  his  people  from  the  shoulders  upward,  and  had  a 
golden  helm  on  his  head  and  a  German  sword  in  his  hand." 
In  the  evening,  he  was  made  acquainted  with  the  death  of  the 
Count  d'Artois:  he  exclaimed,  "that  God  had  wished  for 
what  he  had  given  him,"  and  then  big  tears  fell  from  his  eyes. 
Some  one  came  to  inquire  about  his  brother:  "All  that  I 
know,"  he  said,  "is  that  he  is  in  paradise." 

The  Mamelukes  returning  from  all  sides  to  the  charge,  tha. 
French  defended  their  intrenchments  until  night-fall.  The 
Count  of  Anjou,  who  had  pushed  on  the  nearest  to  Cairo,  was 
on  foot,  in  the  midst  of  his  knights,  when  he  was  attacked  at 
one  and  the  same  time  by  two  troops  of  Saracens,  the  one  on 
foot,  the  other  on  horseback ;  he  was  overwhelmed  with  the 
Greek  fire,  and  was  considered  to  be  utterly  discomfited.  The 
King  saved  him,  by  breaking  through  the  Mussulmans ;  while 
his  horse's  mane  was  all  covered  with  the  Greek  fire.  The 
Count  of  Poictiers  was  for  a  moment  a  prisoner ;  but  was  luckily 
rescued  by  the  butchers,  sutlers  and  women  of  the  army. 
The  Sire  de  Briangon  could  only  keep  his  ground  under  cover 
of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy's  machines,  which  played  across 
the  river.  Gui  de  Mauvoisin,  covered  with  the  Greek  fire, 
hardly  escaped  from  the  flames.  The  battalions  of  the  Count 
of  Flanders,  of  the  barons  from  beyond  the  sea,  commanded 
by  Gui  d'Ibelin  and  Gauthier  de  Chatillon,  had  almost 
throughout  the  day  the  advantage  over  the  enemy.  The 
latter,  at  last,  sounded  the  retreat ;  and  Louis  returned  thanks 


368  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

to  God,  in  the  midst  of  the  whole  army,  for  the  aid  which  He 
had  vouchsafed  him. 

Louis  must  soon  have  seen  that  success  was  impossible, 
and  have  desired  to  retire  on  Damietta ;  but  he  could  not 
resolve  on  the  step.  Indisputably,  the  large  number  of 
wounded  in  the  camp  rendered  retreat  difficult ;  but  every  day 
added  to  the  numbers  of  the  sick.  Encamped  on  the  slime  of 
Egypt,  and  chiefly  fed  on  the  eelpouts  of  the  Nile,  which 
devoured  so  many  corpses,  strange  and  hideous  maladies  broke 
out  in  the  army.  Their  gums  swelled  and  grew  rotten,  and 
they  could  only  swallow  by  having  the  proud-flesh  cut  away  ; 
and  the  camp  sounded  with  dolorous  cries.  The  deaths 
increased  daily.  One  day  during  the  epidemic,  Joinville,  sick 
and  hearing  mass  in  his  bed,  was  obliged  to  rise  and  support 
his  almoner,  who  was  on  the  point  of  fainting:  "So  sup- 
ported, he  concluded  the  administration  of  the  sacrament,  said 
entire  mass  and  never  sang  more." 

The  dead  inspired  horror ;  each  fearing  to  touch  and  to 
bury  them.  In  vain  did  the  King,  full  of  respect  for  these 
martyrs,  set  the  example  and  assist  in  burying  them  with  his 
own  hands.  The  epidemic  was  daily  increased  by  the  num- 
ber of  bodies  left  without  burial ;  and  retreat  was  the  only 
chance  of  saving  the  survivors — the  sad  and  doubtful  retreat 
of  a  diminished,  weakened  and  discouraged  army.  The  King, 
who  had  at  last  fallen  sick  like  the  rest,  might  have  secured 
his  own  safety ;  but  he  would  not  consent  to  abandon  his 
people.  Dying  as  he  was,  he  determined  to  retreat  by  land, 
while  the  sick  were  embarked  on  the  Nile.  To  so  extreme  a 
state  of  weakness  was  he  reduced,  that  his  attendants  were 
soon  compelled  to  bear  him  into  a  small  house. 

However,  the  march  was  soon  stopped  by  the  Saracens, 
who  hung  upon  the  Christians  by  land,  and  lay  in  wait  for 
them  on  the  river.  A  fearful  massacre  took  place,  notwith- 
standing their  repeated  cries  of  surrender,  the  Saracens  fear- 
ing to  make  too  many  prisoners.  At  length  they  drove  the 
crusaders  into  an  enclosed  place  and  summoned  them  to  deny 
Christ :  many  consented  ;  among  others,  all  Joinville's  seamen. 

The  King  and  the  prisoners  of  note  had  been  reserved  for 
future  consideration.  Jerusalem  was  demanded  by  the  Sultan 


IXHJIS  IX.  369 

as  the  price  of  their  liberty :  they  objected  that  it  belonged  to 
the  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  offered  to  surrender  Damietta, 
and  pay  a  ransom  of  four  hundred  thousand  golden  bezants. 
The  Sultan  had  consented  to  the  terms,  when  the  Mamelukes, 
to  whom  he  owed  his  victory,  revolted  and  slew  him  before 
the  galleys  in  which  the  French  were  kept  prisoners.  Their 
situation  was  exceedingly  critical ;  and,  in  fact,  the  murderers 
forced  their  way  to  the  King.  "  The  ruffian  who  had  torn  out 
the  Sultan's  heart  stalked  up  to  him  with  his  bloody  hands, 
and  said,  'What  will  you  give  me  for  having  slain  your 
enemy,  who  would  have  killed  you  ? '  And  the  King  answered 
him  not  a  word.  There  came  as  many  as  thirty  with  bared 
swords  and  their  Danish  axes  in  their  hands  into  our  galley. ' ' 
Joinville  goes  on  to  say,  ' '  And  I  inquired  of  my  lord,  Baudouin 
d'Ibelin,  who  was  well  acquainted  with  their  tongue,  what 
they  said.  He  replied,  that  they  said  that  they  had  come  to 
cut  our  heads  off.  Numbers  began  to  confess  themselves  to  a 
brother  of  the  Trinity,  who  was  with  Count  William  of 
Flanders ;  but,  for  my  part,  not  one  of  my  sins  would  come 
into  my  head.  On  the  contrary,  I  thought  that  the  more  I 
should  defend  myself,  or  do  anything  to  provoke  them,  the 
worse  it  would  be  for  me.  Then  I  crossed  myself,  and  knelt 
at  the  feet  of  one  of  them  who  had  a  carpenter's  Danish  axe 
in  his  hand  and  said,  lSo  died  St.  Agnes.'  Messire  Gui 
d'  Ibelin,  constable  of  Cyprus,  knelt  by  my  side,  and  I  said  to 
him,  '  I  give  you  absolution  with  such  power  as  God  has  given 
me.'  But  when  I  got  up  thence,  I  did  not  recollect  a  word  of 
what  he  had  said  or  related  to  me." 

Three  days  after  Margaret  had  heard  of  her  husband's 
captivity  she  was  confined  of  a  son,  named  John,  whom  she 
surnamed  Tristan.  For  security  sake,  she  had  an  old  knight, 
eighty  years  of  age,  to  lie  at  the  foot  of  her  bed.  Shortly 
before  her  labor  came  on,  she  knelt  at  his  feet  and  begged  a 
boon,  which  the  knight  swore  to  grant.  Then  she  said,  "  I 
require  you,  by  the  faith  which  you  have  just  now  plighted, 
if  the  Saracens  take  this  city,  to  strike  off  my  head  before 
they  lay  hands  on  me."  The  knight  replied,  "Be  sure  that 
I  will  do  it  willingly,  for  I  had  myself  resolved  on  slaying  you 
rather  than  that  you  should  fall  into  their  power." 
24 


370 


HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 


The  misfortunes  and  humiliation  of  St.  Louis  were  com- 
plete. The  Arabs  celebrated  his  defeat  in  songs,  and  more 
than  one  Christian  people  lighted  bonfires  in  their  joy  at  it. 
He  nevertheless  remained  a  year  in  the  Holy  Land  to  aid  in 
its  defence,  in  case  the  Mamelukes  should  push  their  victory 
beyond  Egypt.  He  raised  the  walls  of  the  towns,  fortified 
Caesarea,  Jaffa,  Sidon  and  St.  Jean  d'Acre,  and  did  not  quit 
this  unfortunate  country  until  the  barons  of  the  Holy  Land 
had  themselves  assured  him  that  his  presence  was  no  longer 
essential.  Besides,  he  had  just  heard  news  which  made  it 
his  duty  to  hasten  his  return  to  France — his  mother  was  dead; 
an  immeasurable  misfortune  to  such  a  son,  who,  for  so  many 
years,  had  thought  only  as  she  wished,  and  who  had  left  her, 
contrary  to  her  wishes,  on  this  disastrous  expedition,  which 
was  to  end  in  his  leaving  in  infidel  ground  one  of  his  brothers, 
so  many  loyal  followers,  and  the  bones  of  so  many  martyrs. 
The  sight  of  France  itself  could  not  console  him.  "  Had 
I  alone  to  endure  the  disgrace  and  the  misfortune,"  he 
exclaimed  to  a  bishop,  "and  had  not  my  sins  turned  to  the 
prejudice  of  the  Church  Universal,  I  should  be  resigned. 
But,  alas !  all  Christendom  has  fallen  through  me  into  dis- 
grace and  confusion." 

The  state  in  which  he  found  Europe  was  not  calculated  to 
give  him  comfort.  Long  after  his  return,  St.  Louis  seemed 
to  reject  every  foreign  thought  and  ambition.  He  confined 
himself,  with  uneasy  scrupulosity,  to  his  duty  as  a  Christian, 
considering  all  the  duties  of  royalty  comprised  in  the  practices 
of  devotion,  and  imputing  to  himself,  as  a  sin,  every  disorder 
of  the  common  weal. — M.  MiCHELET. 


KING  EDWARD  VI.,  the  only  son 
of  Henry  VIII.,  of  England,  died 
after  a  few  years'  reign  in  1553. 
All  the  near  heirs  to  the  throne  were 
females,  and  a  Queen  had  never 
heretofore  reigned  in  England. 
Crafty  noblemen  schemed  to  get 
the  real  power  into  their  own  hands. 
To  gratify  the  ambitious  designs  of 
the  most  daring,  a  girl  of  sixteen 
was  hastily  brought  forward  as  Ed- 
ward's successor,  and  when  the  people  refused  to  sanction 
these  illegal  proceedings,  the  youthful  victim  expiated  her 
crime  on  the  scaffold.  Such  is  the  brief  tragedy  of  Lady 
Jane  Grey. 

She  was  born  in  1537,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Henry  Grey, 
Marquis  of  Dorset  and  afterwards  Duke  of  Suffolk.  Her 
mother  was  a  grand-daughter  of  King  Henry  VII.  As  a 
child  Lady  Jane  showed  wonderful  mental  abilities,  and  was 
placed  under  the  special  care  of  Dr.  Aylmer,  afterwards  Bishop 
of  London.  When  fifteen  years  old  she  was  familiar  with 
Latin,  Greek,  French  and  Italian,  and  could  read  Hebrew. 
She  was  equally  distinguished  for  sweetness  and  amiability  of 
temper,  nor  was  she  deficient  in  graceful  accomplishments. 
She  was  of  the  same  age  as  her  royal  cousin,  Edward  VI. , 
and  they  were  very  similar  in  the  early  maturity  of  their 
minds  and  characters  and  religious  views. 

Henry  VIII.,  foreseeing  the  probability  of  disputes  about 
the  Kingdom,  had  obtained  from  Parliament  the  power  and 
privilege  to  fix  by  letters  patent  the  line  of  succession.  He 


372  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

gave  the  precedence,  after  Edward,  to  his  daughter  Mary,  and 
then  Elizabeth.  If  they  failed  to  have  issue,  then  the  crown 
should  pass  to  Lady  Jane  Grey,  the  grand-daughter  of  his 
second  sister,  Mary,  and  after  her  to  Mary,  Queen  of  Scotland, 
the  grand-daughter  of  his  oldest  sister,  Margaret.  The  Duke 
of  Northumberland,  having  become  the  ruling  spirit  of  Ed- 
ward's Council,  succeeded  in  having  his  son,  Lord  Guilford 
Dudley,  married  to  Lady  Jane,  and  then  formed  a  plot  with 
her  father,  the  Duke  of  Suffolk,  to  bring  the  young  bride  to 
the  throne.  They  contended  that  Edward  had  the  same  right 
to  fix  the  succession  that  his  father  had.  The  dying  King 
was  prevailed  upon  to  make  his  cousin  his  heir  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  his  sisters.  The  necessary  document  was  made  out 
and  sealed  ;  but  all  this  was  done  without  Lady  Jane's  knowl- 
edge. 

When  Edward  died,  Northumberland  and  Suffolk,  and 
others  of  the  Council  went  to  her  residence  and  saluted  her  as 
Queen.  She  refused  to  accept  the  position,  urged  the  supe- 
rior claims  of  the  two  princesses,  and  begged  to  be  let  alone 
to  enjoy  her  private  position.  At  last  she  yielded  to  the  per- 
suasions of  her  parents  and  went  with  them  to  the  Tower  to 
spend  the  few  days  of  her  reign.  But  the  English  people, 
moved  by  righteous  distrust  of  the  unscrupulous  Northumber- 
land, refused  to  sanction  the  proceedings,  and  in  ten  days  Mary 
obtained  the  throne.  Lady  Jane  was  soon  afterward  a  pris- 
oner, and  Northumberland  was  beheaded.  Lady  Jane  and  her 
husband  were  also  convicted  of  treason  ;  but  as  it  was  evident 
that  these  children  of  sixteen  years  were  only  tools  in  the 
hands  of  others,  Mary  refused  to  execute  them,  but  kept  them 
in  prison. 

When  Mary  announced  her  intended  marriage  with  King 
Philip,  of  Spain,  the  popular  opposition  to  this  Spanish  alli- 
ance resulted  in  a  serious  rebellion  led  by  Sir  Thomas  Wyat, 
in  which  the  restless  Duke  of  Suffolk  took  part.  The  entrance 
of  the  rebels  into  London  alarmed  Mary's  ministers,  and  they 
concluded  there  would  be  no  absolute  safety  as  long  as  Lady 
Jane  lived.  Suffolk  was  therefore  at  once  beheaded,  and  the 
execution  of  Lady  Jane  and  her  husband  ordered  to  take  place 
four  days  later.  Lord  Dudley  was  executed  on  Tower  Hill, 


LA.DY  JANE  GREY.  373 

and  Lady  Jane  within  the  Tower,  because  of  her  royal  lineage. 
On  the  day  of  execution  Dudley  requested  the  favor  of  an 
interview;  but  Lady  Jane  sent  back  word  that  she  feared  that 
the  tenderness  of  their  parting  would  overcome  their  fortitude, 
and  so  unnerve  them  that  they  could  not  meet  their  approach- 
ing end  in  a  becoming  manner ;  that  their  separation  would 
only  be  for  a  moment,  and  that  they  would  then  join  each 
other  where  their  affections  would  never  be  interrupted.  As 
her  husband  was  led  to  the  place  of  execution,  she  gave  him 
from  her  prison  window  a  sign  of  loving  remembrance,  then 
saw  his  headless  body  taken  back  in  a  cart. 

An  hour  afterward  the  nobler  victim  was  led  forth  to 
execution.  On  the  scaffold  she  made  a  speech  with  great 
calmness  and  self-possession.  She  said,  "that  her  offence 
was  not  having  laid  her  hand  upon  the  crown,  but  the  not 
rejecting  it  with  sufficient  constancy ;  that  she  had  erred  less 
through  ambition  than  through  reverence  to  her  parents, 
whom  she  had  been  taught  to  respect  and  obey ;  that  she 
willingly  received  death,  as  the  only  satisfaction  which  she 
could  now  make  to  the  injured  State ;  and  that  the  story  of 
her  life,  she  hoped,  might  at  least  be  useful,  by  proving  that 
innocence  excuses  not  great  misdeeds,  if  they  tend  anywise 
to  the  destruction  of  the  Commonwealth."  She  then  caused 
her  waiting-woman  to  disrobe  her,  and  without  the  slightest 
evidence  of  fear,  laid  her  head  upon  the  block. 

Thus  perished  on  the  i2th  of  February,  1554,  in  the 
seventeenth  year  of  her  age,  a  lovely  character,  deserving  of 

a  kinder  fate. 

WYAT'S  INSURRECTION. 

It  was  in  Kent  only  that  the  insurrection  assumed  a  for- 
midable appearance  under  the  direction  of  Sir  Thomas  Wyat. 
It  was  formed  without  his  knowledge,  and  was  first  commu- 
nicated to  him  by  the  Earl  of  Devon  ;  but  he  engaged  in  it 
with  cheerfulness,  under  the  persuasion  that  the  marriage  of 
Queen  Mary  with  Philip  would  be  followed  by  the  death  of 
the  Lady  Elizabeth,  and  by  the  subversion  of  the  national 
liberties.  While  his  associates,  by  their  presumption  and 
weakness,  proved  themselves  unequal  to  the  attempt,  he 
excited  the  applause  of  his  very  adversaries,  by  the  secrecy 


374  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

and  address  with  which  he  organized  the  rising,  and  by  the 
spirit  and  perseverance  with  which  he  conducted  the  enter- 
prise. The  moment  he  drew  the  sword,  fifteen  hundred 
armed  men  assembled  around  him;  while  five  thousand  others 
remained  at  their  homes,  ready,  at  the  first  toll  of  the  alarum- 
bell,  to  crowd  to  his  standard.  He  fixed  his  headquarters  in 
the  old  and  ruinous  castle  of  Rochester;  a  squadron  of  five 
sail,  in  the  Thames,  under  his  secret  associate  Winter,  sup- 
plied him  with  cannon  and  ammunition  ;  and  batteries  were 
erected  to  command  the  passage  of  the  bridge,  and  the  oppo- 
site bank  of  the  river.  Yet  fortune  did  not  appear  to  favor 
his  first  attempts.  It  required  all  his  address  to  keep  his 
followers  together.  Though  he  boasted  of  the  succors  which 
he  daily  expected  from  France,  and  circulated  reports  of 
successful  risings  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  many  of  the 
insurgents  began  to  waver;  several  sent  to  the  council  offers 
to  return  to  their  duty,  on  condition  of  pardon;  and  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  main  force  under  Wyat  would  have 
dissolved  of  itself,  had  it  been  suffered  to  remain  a  few  days 
longer  in  a  state  of  inactivity. 

But  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  had  already  marched  from 
London,  with  a  detachment  of  guards,  under  the  command 
of  Sir  Henry  Jerningham.  He  was  immediately  followed 
by  five  hundred  Londoners,  led  by  Captain  Bret,  and  was 
afterwards  joined  by  the  Sheriff  of  Kent  with  the  bands  of 
the  county.  This  force  was  far  inferior  in  number  to  the 
enemy ;  and,  what  was  of  more  disastrous  consequence,  some 
of  its  leaders  were  in  secret  league  with  Wyat  The  Duke, 
having  in  vain  made  an  offer  of  pardon,  ordered  the  bridge 
to  be  forced.  The  troops  were  already  in  motion,  when  Bret, 
who  led  the  van,  halted  his  column,  and  raising  his  sword, 
exclaimed,  "Masters,  we  are  going  to  fight  in  an  unholy 
quarrel  against  our  friends  and  countrymen,  who  seek  only 
to  preserve  us  from  the  dominion  of  foreigners.  Wherefore, 
I  think  that  no  English  heart  should  oppose  them,  and  am 
resolved  for  my  own  part  to  shed  my  blood  in  the  cause 
of  this  worthy  captain,  Master  Wyat."  This  address  was 
seconded  by  Brian  Fitzwilliam ;  shouts  of  "A  Wyat!  a 
Wyat!"  burst  from  the  ranks;  and  the  Londoners,  instead 


LADY  JANE   GREY.  375 

of  advancing  against  the  rebels,  faced  about  to  oppose  the 
royalists.  At  that  moment  Wyat  himself  joined  them  at  the 
head  of  his  cavalry  ;  and  the  Duke,  with  his  principal  officers, 
apprehending  a  general  defection,  fled  towards  Gravesend. 
Seven  pieces  of  artillery  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  insurgents  ; 
their  ranks  were  recruited  from  the  deserters ;  and  the  whole 
body,  confident  of  victory,  began  their  march  in  the  direction 
of  London. 

This  unexpected  result  revealed  to  the  Queen  the  alarming 
secret  that  the  conspiracy  had  pushed  its  branches  into  the 
very  heart  of  the  metropolis.  Every  precaution  was  imme- 
diately taken  for  the  security  of  the  court,  the  Tower,  and 
the  city  ;  the  bridges  for  fifteen  miles  were  broken  down  and 
the  boats  secured  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river ;  the 
neighboring  peers  received  orders  to  raise  their  tenantry,  and 
hasten  to  the  protection  of  the  royal  person ;  and  a  reward  of 
one  hundred  pounds  per  annum  in  land  was  offered  for  the 
apprehension  of  WyaL  That  chieftain,  with  fifteen  thousand 
men  under  his  command,  had  marched  through  Dartford  to 
Greenwich  and  Deptford,  when  a  message  from  the  council, 
inquiring  into  the  extent  of  his  demands,  betrayed  their 
diffidence  and  added  to  his  presumption.  In  the  court  and 
the  council-room  nothing  was  to  be  heard  but  expressions  of 
mistrust  and  apprehension  ;  some  blamed  the  precipitancy  of 
Bishop  Gardner  in  the  change  of  religion  ;  some  the  interested 
policy  of  the  advisers  of  the  Spanish  match ;  and  the  im- 
perial ambassadors,  with  the  exception  of  Renard,  fearing  for 
their  lives,  escaped  in  a  merchant  vessel  lying  in  the  river. 
Queen  Mary  alone  appeared  firm  and  collected  ;  she  betrayed 
no  symptom  of  fear,  no  doubt  of  the  result ;  she  ordered  her 
ministers  to  provide  the  means  of  defence,  and  undertook  to 
fix,  by  her  confidence  and  address,  the  wavering  loyalty  of  the 
Londoners.  The  lord  mayor  had  called  an  extraordinary 
meeting  of  the  citizens;  and,  at  three  in  the  afternoon, 
Mary,  with  the  sceptre  in  her  hand,  and  accompanied  by  her 
ladies  and  officers  of  state,  entered  the  Guildhall. 

The  Queen  was  received  with  every  demonstration  of  re- 
spect, and,  in  a  firm  and  dignified  tone,  complained  of  the 
disobedience  and  insolence  of  the  men  of  Kent  At  first  the 


376  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

leaders  had  condemned  her  intended  marriage  with  the  Prince 
of  Spain ;  now  they  had  betrayed  their  real  design.  They 
demanded  the  custody  of  her  person,  the  appointment  of  her 
council,  and  the  command  of  the  Tower.  Their  object  was 
to  obtain  the  exercise  of  the  royal  authority,  and  to  abolish 
the  national  worship.  But  she  was  convinced  that  her  people 
loved  her  too  well  to  surrender  her  into  the  hands  of  rebels. 
"As  for  this  marriage,"  she  continued,  "ye  shall  understand 
that  I  enterprised  not  the  doing  thereof  without  the  advice  of 
all  our  privy  council.  Certainly,  did  I  think  that  this  marriage 
were  to  the  hurt  of  you  my  subjects,  or  the  impeachment  of 
my  royal  estate,  I  would  never  consent  thereunto.  And,  I 
promise  you,  on  the  word  of  a  Queen,  that,  if  it  shall  not 
appear  to  the  Lords  and  Commons  in  parliament  to  be  for  the 
benefit  of  the  whole  realm,  I  will  never  marry  while  I  live. 
Wherefore,  stand  fast  against  these  rebels,  your  enemies  and 
mine ;  fear  them  not,  for  I  assure  ye,  I  fear  them  nothing  at 
all ;  and  I  will  leave  with  you  my  Lord  Howard  and  my  lord 
admiral,  who  will  be  assistant  with  the  mayor  for  your  de- 
fence." With  these  words  she  departed  ;  the  hall  rang  with 
acclamations,  and  by  the  next  morning  more  than  twenty 
thousand  men  had  enrolled  their  names  for  the  protection  of 
the  city. 

The  next  day  Wyat  entered  Southwark.  But  his  followers 
had  dwindled  to  seven  thousand  men,  and  were  hourly  dimin- 
ishing. The  batteries  erected  on  the  walls  of  the  Tower  com- 
pelled him  to  leave  Southwark;  but  he  had  by  this  time 
arranged  a  plan  with  some  of  the  reformers  in  the  city  to  sur- 
prise Ludgate  an  hour  before  sunrise;  and  for  that  purpose 
directed  his  march  towards  Kingston.  Thirty  feet  of  the 
wooden  bridge  had  been  destroyed  ;  but  he  swam,  or  prevailed 
on  two  seamen  to  swim  across  the  river,  and,  having  procured 
a  boat  from  the  opposite  bank,  labored  with  a  few  associates 
at  the  repairs,  while  his  men  refreshed  themselves  in  the  town. 
At  eleven  at  night  the  insurgents  passed  the  bridge  ;  at  Brent- 
ford they  drove  in  the  advanced  post  of  the  royalists  ;  but  an 
hour  was  lost  in  repairing  the  carriage  of  a  cannon,  and,  as  it 
became  too  late  for  Wyat  to  keep  his  appointment  at  Ludgate, 
the  chief  of  his  advisers  abandoned  him  in  despair.  Among 


LADY  JANE  GREY.  377 

these  was  Sir  George  Harper,  who  rode  to  St.  James',  and 
announced  the  approach  and  expectations  of  Wyat.  He 
arrived  about  two  hours  after  midnight.  The  palace  was 
instantly  filled  with  alarm  ;  the  boldness  of  the  attempt  gave 
birth  to  reports  of  treason  in  the  city  and  the  court ;  and  the 
ministers  on  their  knees,  particularly  the  Chancellor,  conjured 
the  Queen  to  provide  for  her  own  safety,  by  retiring  into  the 
Tower.  But  Mary  scorned  the  timidity  of  her  advisers :  from 
the  Earl  of  Pembroke  and  Lord  Clinton  she  received  assur- 
ances that  they  would  do  their  duty ;  and  in  return  she 
announced  her  fixed  determination  to  remain  at  her  post.  In 
a  council  of  war  it  was  decided  to  place  a  strong  force  at  Lud- 
gate,  to  permit  the  advance  of  Wyat,  and  then  to  press  on 
him  from  every  quarter,  and  to  enclose  him  like  a  wild  beast 
in  the  toils. 

At  four  in  the  morning  the  drum  beat  to  arms;  and  in  a  few 
hours  the  royalists,  under  Pembroke  and  Clinton,  amounted 
to  ten  thousand  infantry  and  fifteen  hundred  cavalry.  The 
hill  opposite  St.  James'  was  occupied  with  a  battery  of  can- 
non and  a  strong  squadron  of  horse ;  lower  down  and  nearer 
to  Charing  Cross,  were  posted  two  divisions  of  infantry ;  and 
several  smaller  parties  were  detached  to  different  points  in  the 
vicinity.  About  nine,  Wyat  reached  Hyde  Park  Corner. 
Many  of  his  followers,  who  heard  of  the  Queen's  proclamation 
of  pardon,  had  slunk  away  in  the  darkness  of  the  night ;  the 
rest  were  appalled  at  the  sight  of  the  formidable  array  before 
their  eyes.  But  their  leader  saw  that  to  recede  must  be  his 
ruin ;  he  still  relied  on  the  co-operation  of  the  conspirators 
and  reformers  in  the  city ;  and  after  a  short  cannonade,  seizing 
a  standard,  rushed  forward  to  charge  the  cavalry.  They 
opened  ;  allowed  three  or  four  hundred  men  to  pass  ;  and  clos- 
ing, cut  off  the  communication  between  them  and  the  main 
body.  The  insurgents,  separated  from  their  leader,  did  not 
long  sustain  the  unequal  contest ;  about  one  hundred  were 
killed,  great  numbers  wounded,  and  four  hundred  made 

prisoners. 

Wyat  paid  no  attention  to  the  battle  which  raged  behind 
his  back.  Intent  on  his  purpose,  he  hastened  through  Picca- 
dilly, insulted  the  gates  of  the  palace,  and  proceeded  towards 


378 


HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 


the  city.  No  molestation  was  offered  by  the  armed  bands 
stationed  on  each  side  of  the  street.  At  Ludgate  he 
knocked,  and  demanded  admittance,  "for  the  Queen  had 
granted  all  his  petitions." — "Avaunt,  traitor!"  exclaimed 
from  the  gallery  the  Lord  William  Howard,  "  thou  shalt 
have  no  entrance  here."  Disappointed  and  confounded,  he 
retraced  his  steps,  till  he  came  opposite  the  inn  called  the  Bel 
Savage.  There  he  halted  a  few  minutes.  To  the  spectators 
he  seemed  absorbed  in  thought;  but  was  quickly  aroused  by 
the  shouts  of  the  combatants,  and  with  forty  companions 
continued  to  fight  his  way  back,  till  he  reached  Temple  Bar. 
He  found  it  occupied  by  a  strong  detachment  of  horse ;  what- 
ever way  he  turned,  fresh  bodies  of  royalists  poured  upon 
him;  and  Norroy,  King-at-arms,  advancing,  exhorted  him  to 
spare  the  blood  of  his  friends,  and  to  yield  himself  a  prisoner. 
After  a  moment's  pause  he  threw  away  his  sword,  and  sur- 
rendered to  Sir  Maurice  Berkeley,  who  carried  him  first  to 
the  Court,  and  thence  to  the  Tower. — J.  LJNGARD. 


WITH  the  accession  of  Hugh 
Capet  to  the  throne  of  France, 
royalty,  which  had  been  little 
more  than  a  mere  name  under 
the  later  Carlovingians,  became, 
as  Michelet  says,  "a  hope,  a 
living  right,  which  slumbers,  it 
is  true,  but  which,  when  need- 
ful, will  awaken. ' '  His  election 
as  the  King  of  France  marked 
a  real  revolution,  the  culmination  of  a  change  that  had  been 
long  in  preparation,  the  beginning  of  a  new  period.  The 
Carolings  had  been  more  German  than  French,  but  now  a 
French  king  ruled,  "the  ancestor  of  all  the  kings  who  have 
sat  on  the  throne  of  France." 

Hugh,  Duke  of  France,  was  grandson  of  Robert  the 
Strong,  and  son  of  Hugh  the  Great,  and  was,  like  his  father, 
Abbot  of  St.  Martin  de  Tours,  whence,  some  believe,  the 
name  Capet,  from  capetus,  a  cowl.  Of  very  humble  origin 
(it  cannot  be  traced  beyond  the  third  generation),  he  rose  to 
prominence,  and  eventually  became  the  first  one  in  that  suc- 
cession supposed  to  have  been  foreshadowed  by  St.  Valery. 
For  popular  tradition  had  it  that  when  Hugh  translated  the 
relics  of  that  holy  man,  the  latter  appeared  to  him  in  a  dream 
and  said :  ' '  For  what  thou  hast  done,  thou  and  thy  descend- 
ants shall  be  kings  to  the  seventh  generation — that  is  for- 
ever." 

Lothaire,  the  King  of  France,  was  threatened  by  the  same 
opposition  to  the  Carlovingian  race  which  kept  his  grand- 
father, Charles  the  Simple,  from  the  throne  for  a  number  of 

379 


380  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

years  by  the  election  of  Eudes,  son  of  Robert  the  Strong,  as 
King,  and  which  drove  his  father,  Louis  d'Outremer,  across 
the  Rhine  for  help  against  Hugh  the  Great,  and  the  other 
lords  objected  to  his  alliance  with  King  Otho  I,  of  Germany. 
However,  he  avoided  open  rebellion,  although  his  power 
steadily  diminished.  "  Lothaire,"  a  contemporary  writer 
tells  us,  "is  King  only  in  name.  Hugh,  without  the  title,  is 
King  in  truth  and  deed. ' '  After  his  death  in  986,  followed 
by  that  of  his  childless  son,  Louis  V,  May  21,  987,  Hugh  was 
proclaimed  King  by  the  nobles  and  crowned  3d  July,  987,  at 
Noyon.  There  still  remained  a  brother  of  Lothaire,  Charles, 
Duke  of  Lorraine,  who  was  supported  in  his  resistance  to  the 
King  by  formidable  chiefs.  He  captured  Laon;  but  that  city, 
after  being  long  besieged  by  Hugh,  fell  into  the  latter' s  hands 
in  990,  through  the  treason  of  Bishop  Adelbero,  and  Charles 
died  in  captivity  the  following  year. 

If  it  is  stated  that  Hugh's  claim  to  the  throne  was  now  no 
longer  contested,  it  must  also  not  be  forgotten  that  his 
kingdom  was  small  indeed.  He  was  one,  the  most  powerful 
one,  of  the  great  lords  of  the  land,  but  not  much  more.  The 
feudal  barons  in  far-off  parts  of  France  probably  cared  not  a 
whit  who  held  the  title  of  King.  The  status  of  kingship  in 
France  was  not  yet  such  as  to  seriously  endanger  the  interests 
of  the  barons :  the  great  struggle  between  feudalism  and 
royalty  did  not  really  begin  until  later  on,  and  especially 
under  Louis  XI  was  the  royal  power  strengthened  and  the 
cause  of  absolute  monarchy  furthered.  "Hugh  Capet's 
reign,"  says  Kitchin,  "was  a  constant  struggle  against  his 
lay  and  clerical  neighbors  :  he  purchased  his  kingly  name  by 
a  life  of  toil  and  by  the  loss  of  much  of  his  domain,  given  to 
his  barons  as  pay  for  their  services."  But  from  his  election 
the  modern  kingdom  of  France  may  be  said  to  date  its 
existence. 

On  his  death,  October  24,  996,  Hugh  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Robert,  who  had  been  crowned  about  nine  years 
before,  and  his  direct  descendants  reigned  in  France  until 
1328.  In  his  person  there  was  raised  to  the  throne  a  race  in 
which,  as  Freeman  says,  "by  a  fate  unparalleled  in  any  other 
kingly  house,  the  crown  was  passed  on  for  three  hundred  and 


HUGH   CAPET.  381 

fifty  years  (987-1328)  from  father  to  son,  a  race  which,  down 
to  our  own  day,  has  never  been  without  a  male  heir,  and  in 
which  the  right  of  the  male  heir  has  never  been  disputed,  save 
once  through  the  ambition  of  a  foreign  prince  (1338-1420), 
and  once  through  the  frenzy  of  religious  partisanship  (1589)." 

THE  YEAR  ONE  THOUSAND. 

(Although  the  remarkable  year  1000  A.D.,  falls  just  beyond  the  reign  of 
Hugh  Capet,  we  take  it  as  exhibiting  in  another  way  the  great  revolution 
of  that  time). 

It  was  the  universal  belief  of  the  Middle  Age  that  the 
thousandth  year  from  the  Nativity  of  Christ  would  be  the 
end  of  the  world.  In  like  manner,  before  Christianity,  the 
Btrusci  had  fixed  ten  centuries  as  the  term  of  their  empire ; 
and  the  prediction  had  been  fulfilled.  Christianity,  a  way- 
farer on  this  earth,  a  guest,  exiled  from  heaven,  readily 
adopted  a  similar  belief.  The  world  of  the  Middle  Age  was 
without  the  external  regularity  of  the  ancient  city,  and  the 
firm  and  compact  order  within  was  not  easily  discernible.  It 
only  saw  chaos  in  itself;  but  longed  for  order,  and  hoped  to 
find  it  in  death.  Besides,  in  those  days  of  miracles  and 
legends,  in  which  everything  assumed  a  strange  hue,  as  if 
seen  through  the  sombre  medium  of  a  stained  casement,  it 
might  well  be  doubted  whether  all  that  met  the  eye  in  this 
apparently  tangible  world  were  other  than  a  dream.  Every-day 
life  was  made  up  of  marvels.  The  army  of  Otho  had  seen  the 
sun  fading,  and  as  yellow  as  saffron.  King  Robert,  excom- 
municated for  having  married  within  the  forbidden  degrees, 
had  received,  when  his  queen  lay  in,  a  monster  in  his  arms. 
The  devil  no  longer  took  the  trouble  to  conceal  himself;  for 
at  Rome  he  had  appeared  openly  to  a  Pope  who  practiced  the 
black  art.  What  with  all  these  apparitions,  visions  and 
strange  voices,  what  with  God's  miracles  and  the  devil's 
witchcrafts,  who  could  deny  the  likelihood  of  the  earth's 
resolving  itself  some  morning  into  smoke,  at  the  sound  of  the 
fatal  trump?  Then,  might  it  well  have  happened  that  what 
we  call  life  would  have  been  found  to  be  death  ;  and  that  the 
world,  in  coming  to  a  close,  might,  like  the  saint  of  the 
legend,  begin  to  live  and  cease  to  dte("zt  tune  vivere  incepit, 
morique  desiit"). 


382  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

The  idea  of  the  end  of  the  world,  sad  as  that  world  was, 
was  at  once  the  hope  and  the  terror  of  the  Middle  Age.  Look 
at  those  antique  statues  of  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries — 
mute,  meager,  and  their  pinched  and  stiffened  lineaments 
grinning  with  a  look  of  living  suffering,  allied  to  the  repul- 
siveness  of  death.  See  how  they  implore,  with  clasped  hands, 
that  desired  yet  dreaded  moment,  that  second  death  of  the 
resurrection,  which  is  to  redeem  them  from  their  unspeakable 
sorrows,  and  raise  them  from  nothingness  into  existence  and 
from  the  grave  to  God.  Here  is  imaged  the  poor  world  itself 
and  its  hopelessness,  after  having  witnessed  so  many  ruins. 
The  Roman  Empire  had  crumbled  away ;  so  had  that  of 
Charlemagne.  Christianity  had  then  believed  itself  intended 
to  do  away  with  sorrow  here  below ;  but  suffering  still  went 
on.  Misfortune  succeeded  misfortune;  ruin,  ruin.  Some 
other  advent  was  needed ;  and  men  expected  that  it  would 
arrive.  The  captive  expected  it  in  the  gloomy  dungeon,  and 
in  the  bonds  of  the  sepulchral  in  pace.  The  serf  expected  it 
while  tracing  the  furrow  under  the  shadow  of  his  lord's  hated 
tower.  The  monk  expected  it  amidst  the  privations  of  the 
cloister,  amidst  the  solitary  tumults  of  his  heart,  amidst  temp- 
tations and  backslidings,  repentances  and  strange  visions.  A 
chronicler  writes  that  he  saw  Satan,  who  malignantly  gam- 
boled around  him,  and  who  at  night  would  draw  aside  his 
coverlet  and  laughingly  chuckle  in  his  ear — "  Thou  art  mine. ' ' 

All  longed  to  be  relieved  from  their  suffering,  no  matter 
at  what  cost !  Better  were  it  for  them  to  fall  once  for  all  into 
God's  hands,  and  rest  forever,  though  on  a  bed  of  fire,  than 
remain  as  they  are.  Nor  could  that  moment  be  without  its 
charm,  when  the  shrill  and  withering  trump  of  the  arch- 
angel should  peal  in  the  ear  of  their  tyrants ;  for  then — from 
dungeon,  cloister  and  from  furrow — one  tremendous  shriek 
of  laughter  would  burst  forth  from  the  stricken  and  oppressed. 

This  fearful  hope  of  the  arrival  of  the  judgment-day  grew 
with  the  calamities  that  ushered  in  the  year  1000,  or  that  fol- 
lowed hard  upon.  It  seemed  as  if  the  order  of  the  seasons 
had  been  inverted,  and  the  elements  had  been  subjected  to 
new  laws.  A  dreadful  pestilence  made  Aquitaine  a  desert 
The  flesh  of  those  who  were  seized  by  it  was  as  if  struck  by 


HUGH   CAPET.  383 

fire,  for  it  fell  rotting  from  the  bones.  The  high  roads  to  the 
places  of  pilgrimage  were  thronged  with  these  wretched 
beings.  They  besieged  the  churches,  particularly  that  of  St 
Martin's  at  Limoges,  and  crowded  its  portals  to  suffocation, 
undeterred  by  the  stench  around  it.  Most  of  the  bishops  of 
the  south  repaired  thither,  bringing  with  them  the  relics  of 
their  respective  churches.  The  crowd  increased,  and  so  did 
the  pestilence ;  and  the  sufferers  breathed  their  last  on  the 
relics  of  the  saints. 

A  few  years  after  it  was  still  worse.  From  the  East  to 
Greece,  Italy,  France  and  England,  famine  prevailed.  uThe 
peck  of  corn,"  says  a  contemporary  writer,  "rose  to  sixty 
sous  of  gold.  The  rich  lost  color  and  flesh.  The  poor  dug 
up  and  ate  the  roots  in  the  woods.  Many,  horrible  to  relate, 
were  driven  by  hunger  to  feed  on  their  fellow-creatures.  The 
strong  waylaid  the  weak,  tore  them  in  pieces,  roasted  them, 
and  ate  them.  Children  would  be  tempted  into  lonely  places 
by  the  offer  of  an  egg,  or  of  fruit,  and  then  made  way  with. 
To  such  extremes  did  this  madness  of  famine  go,  that  the 
very  beasts  were  safer  than  man.  As  if  it  were  an  under- 
stood thing  that  it  was  to  be  eaten,  human  flesh  was  exposed 
for  sale  in  the  market-place  of  Touraus.  The  vender  did  not 
deny  the  fact,  and  was  burned.  The  night  succeeding  his  ex- 
ecution, the  self-same  flesh  was  dug  up  by  a  starving  wretch, 
who  ate  it,  and  was  burned  as  well." 

"A  wretch  had  built  a  hut  in  the  forest  of  Macon,  near 
the  church  of  St.  Jean  de  Castanedo,  where  he  murdered  in 
the  night-time  those  who  had  besought  his  hospitality.  The 
bones  of  his  victims  caught  the  eye  of  one  of  his  guests,  who 
managed  to  escape ;  and  there  were  found  in  his  hut  forty- 
eight  skulls  of  men,  women  and  children.  Driven  by  hunger, 
many  mixed  clay  with  the  flour.  Still  further  misfortune 
followed.  The  wolves,  allured  by  the  number  of  unburied 
bodies,  attacked  the  living.  The  God-fearing  then  dug 
trenches,  whither  father  and  mother  were  borne  by  son,  and 
brother  by  brother,  as  soon  as  life  began  to  fail ;  and  the  sur- 
vivor himself,  despairing  of  life,  would  often  cast  himself  in 
after  them.  A  council  of  the  prelates  of  the  cities  of  Gaul 
being  summoned,  in  order  to  devise  some  remedy  for  these 


384  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EYENTS. 

woes,  it  was  agreed,  that  since  there  was  not  food  for  all,  the 
stoutest  should  be  assisted  as  much  as  possible,  for  fear  of  the 
land's  being  left  uncultivated." 

Men's  hearts  were  often  softened  by  this  excess  of  misery, 
and  rendered  accessible  to  the  touch  of  pity.  Dreading  the 
sword  of  God,  they  sheathed  their  own.  It  was  no  longer 
worth  while  to  fight  or  to  wage  war  for  an  accursed  world, 
which  they  were  about  to  quit  Vengeance  was  useless :  all 
saw  that  their  enemies'  lives,  like  their  own,  were  doomed. 
When  the  pestilence  attacked  Limoges,  men  hurried  to  throw 
themselves  at  the  feet  of  the  bishops,  pledged  themselves 
thenceforward  to  live  peaceably,  respect  the  churches,  and  to 
abstain  from  plundering  travelers,  or  at  least  such  as  jour- 
neyed under  the  protection  of  priests  or  of  monks.  All  war 
was  prohibited  during  the  holy  days  of  each  week ;  that  is, 
from  the  Wednesday  evening  to  the  Monday  morning:  a 
custom  called  the  peace,  and  subsequently,  the  truce  of  God. 

In  this  general  despair  few  enjoyed  any  peace  save  under 
the  shadow  of  the  Church.  Men  crowded  to  lay  on  the  altar 
gifts  of  lands,  of  houses  and  of  serfs ;  all  which  acts  have  the 
imprint  of  the  one  universal  belief: — "The  end  of  the  world 
draws  nigh,"  so  they  ran,  "each  day  brings  fresh  destruc- 
tion ;  therefore  I,  count  or  baron,  give  to  such  or  such  church 
for  the  benefit  of  my  soul "  ....  or  else,  "Reflecting  that 
slavery  is  contrary  to  Christian  liberty,  I  declare  such  or  such 
a  one,  my  born  thrall,  him,  his  children  and  his  heirs,  free." 

Even  this  did  not  set  their  minds  at  rest.  They  longed  to 
forsake  the  sword,  the  baldric,  and  all  the  insignia  of  the 
military  service  of  the  age,  in  order  to  screen  themselves 
among  monks,  and  under  monkly  garb,  seeking  but  a  corner 
of  a  convent  in  which  to  bury  themselves.  The  difficulty 
was  to  hinder  the  great  of  the  earth,  kings  and  dukes,  from 
becoming  monks,  or  at  least  lay  brothers.  William  I. ,  Duke 
of  Normandy,  would  have  forsaken  all  and  retired  into  the 
Monastery  of  Jumieges,  had  the  abbot  permitted  him  ;  still, 
he  managed  to  carry  away  a  cowl  and  a  frock,  which  he 
secured  in  a  small  coffer,  the  key  of  which  he  always  wore  at 
his  girdle.  Hugh  L,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and,  before  him, 
the  Emperor  Henry  II.,  had  desired  to  turn  monks.  Hugh 


HUGH   CAPET. 


385 


was  prevented  from  carrying  his  wish  into  effect  by  the  Pope. 
Henry,  on  entering  the  church  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Vanne,  at 
Verdun,  had  exclaimed  with  the  Psalmist — "This  is  my  rest 
for  ever  ;  here  will  I  dwell,  for  I  have  desired  it ! "  Being 
overheard  by  a  monk,  who  put  the  abbot  on  his  guard,  the 
latter  invited  him  to  attend  a  chapter  of  the  house,  and  then 
inquired  into  his  intentions.  "By  the  grace  of  God,"  re- 
plied the  Emperor  with  tears,  "I  seek  to  renounce  the  gar- 
ments of  this  world,  to  assume  yours,  and  to  live,  serving 
God,  with  your  brethren." — "Will  you  then,"  said  the 
abbot,  "in  compliance  with  our  rule,  and  the  example  of 
Jesus  Christ,  promise  obedience  until  death?" — "I  will," 
•was  the  answer. — "Well,  I  accept  you  as  a  monk;  from  this 
day  forward  I  take  on  myself  the  care  of  your  soul,  and  what 
I  order,  that  do  you  with  the  fear  of  God  before  you.  I  bid 
you  return  to  the  government  of  the  Empire,  which  God  has 
confided  to  your  charge,  and  to  watch  with  all  your  soul,  in 
fear  and  trembling,  over  the  safety  of  the  whole  kingdom." 
The  Emperor,  bound  thereto  by  his  vow,  sorrowfully  obeyed. 
However,  he  had  long  previously  been  a  monk,  having  lived 
with  his  wife  as  brother  with  sister,  and  he  is  honored  by  the 
Church  with  the  name  of  St.  Henry.— M.  MiCHELET. 


SCIPIO  AFRICANUS. 


CARTHAGE,  founded  by  the  Phoeni- 
cians in  northern  Africa,  was  for  a 
very  long  period  the  one  great  rival 
of  the  Roman  power.  Thrice  be- 
tween the  years  264  and  146  B.C.  did 
this  city  contest  with  Rome  for  the 
supremacy  of  the  Mediterranean. 
These  wars  were  called  by  the  Ro- 
mans Punic — that  is,  Phoenician. 
The  First  Punic  War  covered  a  period 
of  twenty-three  years,  and  resulted 
in  the  defeat  by  the  Romans,  not  only 
of  the  armies,  but  of  the  fleets  of  the 

Carthaginians,  who  had  prided  themselves  on  their  naval 
power.  The  Second  Punic  War,  218  to  201  B.C.,  commenced 
with  Hannibal's  siege  of  Saguntum  in  Spain,  and  was  occu- 
pied chiefly  with  his  invasion  and  conquest  of  Italy,  but  was 
terminated  by  his  defeat  in  the  battle  of  Zama,  within  a  day's 
march  of  Carthage.  The  third  war  was  a  most  desperate  con- 
flict, and  was  ended  by  the  destruction  of  Carthage  by  the 
Romans,  146  B.C. 

Publius  Cornelius  Scipio,  the  chief  Roman  hero  of  the 
Second  Punic  War,  was  born  in  Rome  in  234  B.C.  He  came 
of  the  illustrious  Cornelian  tribe,  and  of  a  family  whose  name 
is  identified  with  some  of  the  most  splendid  triumphs  of  the 
Roman  arms.  His  father,  bearing  the  same  name  as  himself, 
successfully  avenged  an  imprisonment  in  Africa  by  taking 
many  places  in  Sicily,  and  particularly  Panormos,  from  the 
Carthaginians.  He  had  also  great  successes  in  Corsica  and 
Sardinia.  The  son,  having  entered  the  army,  which  was 
under  his  father's  command,  sought  to  resist  Hannibal's  in- 


SCIPIO  AFRICANUS.  387 

vasion  of  Italy.  He  first  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Ticinus,  218  B.C.,  when  he  was  but  sixteen  years  of  age. 
As  he  had  indeed  saved  his  father's  life  by  his  valor  and  bold- 
ness,  the  father,  by  his  authority  as  general,  ordered  the  civic 
crown  to  be  presented  to  him  ;  but  the  son  modestly  refused 
it,  with  the  magnanimous  declaration  that  the  action  was  one 
that  rewarded  itself.  The  young  soldier  continued  to  serve 
faithfully  in  the  war  against  Hannibal,  and  the  battle  of  Can- 
nae, which  well  nigh  proved  fatal  to  the  Roman  cause,  instead 
of  disheartening  him,  roused  all  his  courage.  He  no  sooner 
heard  that  some  of  his  countrymen  wished,  in  despair,  to 
abandon  Italy,  than,  sword  in  hand,  he  burst  into  the  cham- 
ber of  Metellus,  where  he  found  the  young  patricians  met  in 
deep  consultation.  Scipio  addressed  them:  UI  swear  that  I 
will  never  abandon  the  republic  of  the  Roman  people,  nor 
suffer  one  of  her  citizens  to  desert  it.  If  knowingly  I  break 
this  oath,  then,  O  Jupiter,  supremely  good  and  great,  do  you 
overwhelm  with  ruin  myself,  my  house,  my  family  and  my 
fortune.  I  call  on  you,  Metellus  ;  I  call  on  all  who  are  pre- 
sent to  take  the  same  oath.  Whoever  will  not  swear,  let  that 
man  know  that  against  him  this  sword  is  drawn."  All  took 
the  solemn  pledge  of  fidelity  to  the  Republic. 

In  his  twenty-first  year  Scipio  was  made  an  ^dile,  which 
office  was,  by  law,  reserved  for  such  as  had  reached  their 
twenty-seventh  year.  The  Tribunes  opposed  his  election,  and 
told  him  that  he  was  too  young.  "  If, "  answered  he,  ' '  the 
Romans  wish  to  make  me  an  ^Edile,  I  am  old  enough." 
When  news  was  brought  from  Spain  that  Scipio' s  father  and 
uncle  had  been  slain,  the  young  man  was  at  once  chosen 
to  avenge  this  great  disaster  to  his  family  and  the  State.  He 
soon  showed  special  ability  as  commander  of  the  army ;  vari- 
ous tribes  of  Spain  were  conquered,  and  in  four  years  the 
Carthaginians  were  driven  from  that  part  of  Europe.  New 
Carthage  submitted  in  one  day,  and  in  a  battle  54,000  of  the 
enemy  were  left  dead  on  the  field. 

Having  returned  to  Italy,  Scipio  received  the  dignity  of 
Consul,  and  was  empowered  to  carry  the  war  into  Africa. 
Success  attended  his  arms ;  his  conquests  were  here  as  rapid 
as  in  Spain.  Terms  of  accommodation  were  proposed ;  but 


388  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS. 

these  came  to  nothing.  Finally,  on  the  igth  of  October,  202 
B.C.,  was  fought  the  great  battle  of  Zauia.  About  30,000  Car- 
thaginians were  slain  and  the  same  number  made  pris- 
oners of  war.  Only  2,000  of  the  Romans  were  killed.  Recog- 
nizing this  battle  as  decisive,  Hannibal  sought  refuge  in  the 
East.  The  Carthaginians  sued  for  peace,  which  Scipio,  in 
spite  of  the  vengeful  clamor  of  his  countrymen,  granted  on 
moderate  terms.  The  conqueror  of  Hannibal,  returning  to 
Rome,  was  received  with  the  most  unbounded  applause, 
honored  with  a  triumph  and  dignified  with  the  appellation 
Africanus.  This  was  the  first  instance  of  such  a  surname 
since  the  days  of  Coriolanus. 

Soon  after  this,  Scipio,  who  was  strongly  aristocratic  in 
feeling,  offended  the  plebeians  by  wishing  to  have  the  sena- 
tors distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  people  at  all  public 
exhibitions.  Hence,  when  he  canvassed  for  the  Consulship 
for  two  of  his  friends,  he  had  the  mortification  to  see  his 
application  slighted.  He  then  retired  from  Rome,  and, 
in  the  capacity  of  lieutenant,  accompanied  his  brother  Lucius 
in  the  war  against  Antiochus,  King  of  Syria.  The  Asiatic 
monarch  was  defeated,  and  submitted  to  terms  dictated  by  the 
conquerors.  On  Scipio' s  return  to  Rome,  he  found  the  malevo- 
lence of  his  enemies  still  unabated.  In  187  B.C.  two  Tribunes 
of  the  people,  named  Petillius,  required  that  Lucius,  the 
brother  of  Scipio,  should  render  an  account  of  all  the  money 
which  he  had  received  from  Antiochus.  His  brother  pre- 
pared the  account;  but  as  he  was  about  to  present  it,  Scipio 
snatched  it  out  of  his  hands  and  tore  it  to  pieces.  Cato,  his 
inveterate  rival,  had  raised  seditions  against  him.  He  was 
now  charged  with  extortions  in  the  Provinces  of  Asia,  and 
of  living  in  a  luxurious  manner.  Under  this  indictment  he 
was  three  times  summoned  to  appear.  Twice  he  did  so;  but 
the  third  time  he  fled  to  his  country  house  at  Liternum.  He 
never  returned  to  Rome.  Dying  about  the  year  184  B.C.,  he 
was  buried  at  Liternum,  where  his  tomb  still  existed  in  the 
time  of  Livy. 

As  his  son  afterward  bore  the  same  name  and  surname, 
the  father  is  distinguished  in  history  as  P.  Cornelius  Scipio 
Africanus  Major  or  the  Elder.  By  nature,  he  was  thoroughly 


SCIPIO  AFRICANUS.  389 

aristocratic,  but  generous  and  courteous  in  his  manners.  In 
his  gestures  and  behaviour  there  was  a  princely  grace.  No 
Roman  character  has  been  celebrated  with  more  cordial  praise 
by  ancient  and  modern  writers  than  that  of  Scipio  Africanus. 
His  name  stands  among  the  most  eminent  military  charac- 
ters of  the  Republic,  but  though  fortune  and  the  trained  valor 
of  the  Roman  legions  enabled  him  to  defeat  Hannibal,  he 
cannot  justly  be  regarded  as  equal  in  ability  to  the  great 
Carthaginian. 

SCIPIO  CONQUERS  HANNIBAL. 

The  renown  of  Scipio  derives  peculiar  lustre  from  sources 
which  we  are  unable  distinctly  to  trace.  The  account  of  his 
exploits  by  Livy  seems  to  betray  in  its  romantic  and  poetical 
character  the  coloring,  if  not  the  invention,  of  the  panegyrists 
who  hung  about  the  families  of  the  Roman  magnates.  Scipio 
was  himself  one  of  the  first  of  his  nation  to  devote  himself 
to  Greek  manners,  and  surround  himself  with  Greek  admirers 
and  flatterers.  His  manners  were  refined  beyond  the  usual 
tone  of  his  rough  countrymen.  He  was  popular  at  Rome, 
but  he  was  far  more  popular  among  the  allies  of  Rome,  and 
was  adored  by  the  Italians  as  their  great  protector  against  the 
Carthaginian  invader.  When  the  Senate,  in  its  jealousy  of 
his  transcendent  abilities,  refused  to  allow  him  the  men  and 
money  requisite  for  his  meditated  descent  upon  Africa,  it  was 
from  the  States  of  Italy  that  he  recruited  his  forces,  each 
furnishing  him  with  a  portion  of  the  material  he  required, 
and  urging  him  to  abandon  the  Fabian  policy  which,  how- 
ever, it  had  answered  the  interests  of  Rome  herself,  had 
caused  prolonged  misery  to  every  part  of  the  peninsula.  It 
was  this  popularity  that  gave  rise  to  the  assertion  repeated  by 
many  of  the  later  writers,  that  wherever  he  set  his  foot  Scipio 
might  have  established  himself  as  a  king.  Undoubtedly  his 
gallantry  and  genius  gained  him  the  peculiar  veneration  of 
his  countrymen,  and  pointed  him  out  for  an  epic  hero  to  be 
adored  like  Romulus,  to  be  loved  like  Camillus.  His  conti- 
nence is  justly  noted  by  Polybius  in  a  simple  story  which 
Livy  has  magnified  into  a  romance.  No  other  Roman  except 
Julius  Csesar  ever  won  and  retained  such  a  hold  upon  the 
imagination  of  the  Romans. 

o 


390  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

Scipio  had  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  Senate  by 
threatening  it  with  an  appeal  to  the  people,  in  order  to  obtain 
permission  to  carry  the  war  into  Africa.  He  had  been  con- 
tent, with  this  grand  object  in  view,  to  forego  the  honors  of  a 
triumph,  which  party  jealousy  denied  him,  but  which  no 
doubt  he  could  have  extorted,  with  the  popular  feeling  rising 
so  high  at  his  beck.  But  in  Africa  it  was  evident  that  a  long 
contest  yet  lay  before  the  Romans,  and  Scipio  devoted  him- 
self to  the  task  with  constancy  and  resolution.  The  Car- 
thaginian Senate  commanded  Hannibal  to  quit  Italy  without 
delay,  and  make  all  diligence  to  come  and  save  his  country 
at  home. 

Scipio,  having  landed  in  Africa  in  the  year  204,  began  his 
operations  by  laying  siege  to  Utica.     There  appears  to  have 
been  no  disposition  on  the  part  either  of  the  nation  or  of  their 
mercenary  soldiers  to  revolt  against  the  Carthaginian  Govern- 
ment.    Scipio  found  no  ally  except  Masinissa,  and  he  was  a 
fugitive  with  only  a  few  hundred  horsemen,  having  been  ex- 
pelled from  his  own  realm  by  Syphax.     His  knowledge  of 
the  country  and  of  the  people  may  have  been  valuable,  and  it 
was  by  his  counsel,  perhaps,  that  Scipio  set  fire  to  the  huts  of 
the  Numidians  and  Carthaginians,  constructed  of  the  lightest 
materials,  successively  on  the  same  day.     The  effect  of  this 
stroke  seems  to  have  been  prodigious.     The  armies  of  the 
enemy  were  thrown  into  utter  confusion,  and   routed  with 
immense   slaughter.     Masinissa    followed   up  the  blow  by 
the    capture  of   Syphax,   which    neutralized    at    once   the 
alliance  of  Numidia.     But  Scipio  sustained  a  reverse  in  the 
loss  of  his  fleet,  and  the  Uticans  continued  to  defend  them- 
selves, and  compelled  him  at  last  to  raise  the  siege.     For  a 
moment  at  least  he  contemplated  making  terms  with  Carthage, 
and  arranged  an  armistice  while  envoys  were  sent  from  Africa 
to  Rome.    But  the  Roman  Senate,  now  exulting  in  the  defeat 
of  Mago  in  Spain,  and  the  recall  just  announced  of  Hannibal 
from  Italy,  would  listen  to  no  accommodation.     The  envoys 
of  Carthage  returned  without  even  a  hearing.      Hannibal 
reluctantly  quitted  the  land  in  which  he  had  waged  war  for 
so  many  years,  and  gained  such  glorious  victories  to  so  little 
purpose. 


SCIPIO  AFRICANUS.  39! 

Hannibal  sailed  from  Crotona  in  the  autumn  of  203,  under 
cover  of  the  armistice  which  had  been  concluded,  and  while 
it  seemed  still  possible  that  a  permanent  peace  might  be 
established.  The  Romans  were  evidently  glad  to  let  him  go 
and  bear  his  laurels  with  him  untarnished.  He  came  to  land, 
not  at  Carthage,  but  at  Leptis,  and  spent  the  winter  at 
Hadrumetum.  The  greater  part  of  another  year  intervened, 
and  yet  we  hear  nothing  of  warlike  operations  between  the 
great  generals  who  now  confronted  each  other.  At  last  a 
pitched  battle  was  fought  somewhere  to  the  west  of  Carthage 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  Bagradas,  to  which  the  name  of 
Zama  has  been  attached,  but  which  is  supposed  to  have  really 
occurred  at  two  or  three  days'  journey  from  that  place.  Nor 
is  the  date  of  the  battle  definitely  noted,  which  may,  however, 
be  aptly  inferred  from  the  circumstance  recorded  that  it  was 
fought  on  the  day  of  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  such  as  is  found 
to  have  taken  place  on  the  igth  of  October.  This  would  be 
a  small  matter  but  for  the  vast  importance  of  the  fortunes 
which  were  decided  in  that  famous  conflict.  The  disposition 
of  Scipio's  forces  seems  to  have  deviated  in  some  particulars 
from  that  which  was  usual  with  the  Romans,  but  the  event 
was  no  doubt  decided  more  by  the  indomitable  valor  of  the 
legions,  when  well  led  and  confident  in  their  commander,  than 
by  any  superiority  of  the  one  chief  over  the  other.  It  ended 
in  the  entire  rout  and  destruction  of  the  Carthaginian  army, 
the  flight  of  Hannibal,  and  the  virtual  conclusion  of  the  long 
struggle  between  the  rival  republics.  Scipio  was  at  once 
advanced  to  the  highest  pinnacle  of  military  glory,  as  the  con- 
queror of  the  conqueror  of  Trasimenus  and  Cannae. 

There  remained,  however,  a  yet  higher  glory  to  achieve, 
and  Scipio  made  it  his  own  by  his  moderation  and  generosity. 
Carthage  lay  at  last  at  the  feet  of  Rome.  The  question  now 
arose  at  Rome  and  among  the  chiefs  of  the  triumphant  legions 
how  this  detested  and  still  dangerous  enemy  should  be  treated. 
Many  there  were  who  vehemently  urged  her  entire  destruc- 
tion, after  the  manner  of  Veii,  or  the  treatment  little  less 
severe  which  had  been  inflicted  on  Capua  and  Tarentum. 
But  Scipio  alone  withstood  the  clamor  of  his  vengeful  coun- 
trymen, partly,  we  may  hope,  from  a  feeling  of  humanity; 


392  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

partly,  it  has  been  surmised,  from  the  liberal  policy  of  not 
leaving  Rome  without  a  rival  to  teach  her  still  to  content 
herself  by  the  law  of  nations,  and  refrain  from  the  gratifica- 
tion of  an  inordinate  ambition.  He  abstained  from  demanding 
the  delivery  of  Hannibal  into  his  hands,  and  allowed  Carthage 
to  retain  her  laws  at  home,  and  her  sway  over  the  territories 
she  claimed  as  her  own  in  Africa.  She  was  required  to  sur- 
render all  her  ships  but  ten,  all  her  elephants,  and  no  doubt 
her  other  munitions  of  war,  and  to  engage  to  make  no  war 
even  in  Africa  without  the  permission  of  the  Romans.  Han- 
nibal proved  to  his  countrymen  the  necessity  of  submission. 

Having  established  Masinissa  in  dignity  and  power,  as  a 
vigilant  outpost  at  the  gates  of  Carthage,  Scipio  transported 
his  army  across  the  sea,  traversed  the  southern  half  of  the 
peninsula  with  an  immense  concourse  of  the  people  who  had 
witnessed  so  many  of  his  rival's  victories,  and  entered  Rome 
in  the  most  splendid  of  triumphs.  Scipio  received  from  the 
soldiers  and  citizens  the  illustrious  name  of  Africanus,  being 
the  first  Roman,  if  we  except  the  dubious  instance  of  Cori- 
olanus,  who  was  honored  with  a  titular  designation  from  the 
place  or  people  he  had  conquered.  His  statue  was  placed,  in 
triumphal  robes  and  crowned  with  laurel,  in  the  Temple  of 
Jupiter.  The  people  were  ready  to  offer  him  the  consulship 
for  life.  At  that  crisis  of  the  Roman  polity  a  true  patriot 
might  have  accepted  the  post  of  a  constitutional  sovereign, 
and  done  much  to  check  the  downward  progress  of  public 
life  which  became  now  marked  and  rapid. — C.  MERIVALE. 


HE  name  of  Pliny  has  been  made  illus- 
trious by  two  Romans,  who  were  uncle 
and  nephew,  and  are  usually  distin- 
guished as  Pliny  the  Elder  and  Pliny 
the  Younger.  Pliny  the  Elder,  whose 
full  Latin  name  was  Caius  Plinius 
Secundus,  was  born  of  a  noble  family 
at  Novum  Comum  (now  Como)  in 

northern  Italy,  in  23  A.D.  He  was  educated  in  Rome,  where 
he  studied  law  and  the  Greek  language.  At  an  early  age  he 
served  in  the  army  in  Germany  under  Lucius  Pomponius, 
who  gave  him  command  of  a  body  of  cavalry.  Having 
returned  to  Rome  about  the  age  of  thirty,  he  pleaded  several 
causes ;  but  during  the  greater  part  of  the  reign  of  Nero,  he 
lived  in  retirement. 

After  the  death  of  Nero,  in  68  A.D.,  Pliny  was  appointed 
Procurator  of  Spain,  and  it  appears  that  he  retained  that 
office  several  years.  He  afterwards  became  an  intimate  friend 
of  the  Emperor  Vespasian,  who  appointed  him  admiral  of 
a  fleet,  and  he  was  commander  of  a  fleet  at  Misenum  at  the 
time  of  his  death.  Especial  interest  attaches  to  the  manner 
of  his  death,  as  the  full  particulars  are  given  in  a  letter  of 
Pliny  the  Younger  to  the  historian  Tacitus.  In  August,  yg> 
A.D.,  occurred  the  first  great  eruption  of  Vesuvius.  Perceiv- 
ing a  cloud  of  smoke  rising  in  the  form  of  a  pine  tree  from 
the  mountain,  which  was  not  then  known  to  be  a  volcano, 
Pliny  embarked  on  a  vessel,  and  desiring  to  make  careful 

393 


394  HISTORIC   CHARACTERS   AND   FAMOUS   EVENTS- 

observation  of  the  remarkable  phenomenon,  approached  so 
near  the  scene  of  danger  that  showers  of  cinders  and  pumice- 
stone  fell  into  the  vessel.  He  landed  at  Stabiae  in  the  even- 
ing, ate  supper  in  the  house  of  a  friend,  and  retired  to  rest 
and  sleep.  The  danger  became  so  imminent  that  he  was 
awakened,  and  attempted  to  return  to  his  vessel,  but  was 
suffocated  by  noxious  gases,  on  the  land,  and  thus  fell  a  vic- 
tim to  his  thirst  for  knowledge.  This  was  the  celebrated 
eruption  which  overwhelmed  the  cities  of  Herculaneum  and 
Pompeii. 

The  only  work  of  Pliny  that  is  now  extant  is  his  ' '  Natural 
History ' '  in  thirty-seven  books — a  stupendous  monument  of 
his  industry.  It  is,  at  the  same  time,  one  of  the  most  precious 
collections  that  antiquity  has  left  for  us,  and  the  evidence  of 
an  erudition  very  wonderful  in  a  warrior  and  statesman.  In 
order  to  appreciate  this  vast  and  celebrated  production,  it  is 
necessary  to  direct  our  attention  to  the  plan,  the  facts  and  the 
style.  The  plan  is  immense,  as  it  includes  besides  natural 
history,  in  the  modern  sense  of  that  term,  physics,  astronomy, 
geography,  medicine  and  the  arts.  Pliny  was  not  an  original 
observer  like  Aristotle  ;  in  general  he  is  only  a  compiler,  and 
often  without  direct  knowledge  of  the  subjects  on  which  he 
collects  the  testimonies  of  others.  He  shows  too  great  a 
fondness  for  what  is  singular  and  marvelous,  and  too  much 
credulity,  to  be  ranked  as  an  accurate  naturalist.  Yet  his 
work  long  shared,  with  that  of  Aristotle,  the  esteem  of  the 
learned  world,  and  is  still  regarded  as  a  valuable  museum  of 
antiquities.  His  style  is  condensed  and  vigorous,  and  he  is 
fond  of  antithesis.  He  is  always  dignified  and  grave,  full  of 
love  for  justice  and  respect  for  virtue,  a  horror  of  cruelty  and 
a  contempt  for  the  unbridled  luxury  which  had  corrupted  the 
Roman  people.  "His  profound  erudition,"  says  Buffon,  "is 
enhanced  by  elevation  of  ideas  and  nobleness  of  style.  He 
had  that  large  faculty  of  thinking  which  multiplies  science; 
he  had  that  finesse  of  reflection  on  which  elegance  and  taste 
depend,  and  he  inspires  the  reader  with  a  certain  freedom  of 
spirit  which  is  the  germ  of  philosophy."  His  history  of 
Greek  art  has  elicited  praise  from  the  best  modern  critics. 
Pliny  believed  that  the  world  is  spherical,  and  that  the 


PUNY.  395 

universe  is  eternal,  boundless,  uncreated  and  indestructible. 
In  theology  he  was  a  pantheist,  and  a  worshiper  of  nature,  in 
philosophy  a  disciple  of  Epicurus. 

PLINY  THE  YOUNGER,  whose  full  Latin  name  was  Caius 
Plinius  Csecilius  Secundus,  was  a  son  of  Lucius  Csecilius  and 
of  Plinia,  a  sister  of  Pliny  the  Elder,  and  was  born  at  Comum, 
on  Lake  Como,  in  61  or  62  A.D.  Having  been  adopted  by  his 
uncle  Pliny,  he  was  liberally  educated,  learned  the  Greek  lan- 
guage, and  wrote  a  Greek  tragedy  at  the  age  of  fourteen.  He 
studied  rhetoric  under  Quintilian,  and  also  studied  law,  and 
became  a  popular  pleader  in  Rome,  where  he  began  to  prac- 
tice about  80  A.D. 

Pliny  was  highly  accomplished,  devoted  to  literature,  very 
rich  and  munificent.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  served  as  an 
officer  in  Syria.  Having  returned  to  Rome,  he  became  Quaes- 
tor, and  subsequently  Tribune  of  the  people.  He  was  elected 
Praetor  at  the  age  of  thirty,  and  during  the  reign  of  Domitian 
passed  several  years  in  retirement.  The  Emperor  Trajan, 
who  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Pliny,  recalled  him  to  the  pub- 
lic service.  He  became  Consul  in  100  A.D.,  and  was  appointed 
Governor  of  the  Province  of  Bithynia  and  Pontica  in  103. 

From  this  Province  Pliny  wrote  to  Trajan  a  famous  letter, 
in  which  he  bore  testimony  to  the  good  morals  of  the  Chris- 
tians of  his  Province,  and  asked  directions  for  their  treatment. 
In  this  letter  he  said:  "Those  who  obstinately  persisted  that 
they  were  Christians,  after  they  were  warned  of  the  conse- 
quences, I  ordered  to  be  punished."  The  Emperor  replied: 
"You  ought  not  to  search  for  them;  but  if  they  are  accused 
and  convicted,  they  must  be  punished."  He  modified  this 
decree  by  saying  that  "if  the  accused  denies  that  he  is  a 
Christian,  and  gives  evidence  of  his  sincerity  by  praying  to 
our  gods,  he  should  receive  pardon  for  his  repentance."  It 
appears  that  he  enforced  the  law,  and  punished  with  death 
some  Christians  who  refused  to  renounce  their  faith.  The  last 
book  of  Pliny's  Epistles  contains  many  letters  from  Pliny  to 
Trajan,  and  many  replies  written  by  Trajan.  The  date  of  his 
death  is  unknown. 

As  a  husband,  master  and  friend,  he  was  affectionate, 
humane  and  generous.  He  founded  and  endowed  an  alms- 


396  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND   FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

house,  and  founded  a  public  library  at  Comum.  He  was  a 
friend  of  the  historian  Tacitus.  No  Roman,  from  the  time  of 
Cicero,  acquired  so  high  a  reputation  for  eloquence;  but  all 
his  orations  are  lost  except  a  u  Panegyric  on  Trajan,"  which 
is  much  admired,  and  which  supplies  us  with  interesting  facts. 
He  published  a  collection  of  Letters  in  ten  books,  which  are 
highly  prized  and  very  instructive,  as  all  original  letters  of 
antiquity  must  be,  because  they  elucidate  the  period  in  which 
they  are  written.  There  are  few  remains  of  Roman  prose 
literature  which  are  as  interesting  and  elegant  as  Pliny's 
Letters.  The  Latinity  of  these  Letters  is  perhaps  not  inferior 
to  that  of  Cicero,  whom  he  imitated  in  style.  Erasmus,  him- 
self a  renowned  letter- writer,  said  of  Pliny's  Letters:  "They 
are  witty,  elegant  and  appropriate;  in  them  you  read  nothing 
but  what  pertains  to  domestic  every-day  life,  and  everything 
simply  Latin,  chaste  and  well  set  off.  Though  his  style  is 
elaborated  with  much  art,  ingenuity  and  culture,  yet  it  seems 
in  a  manner  unlabored,  unpremeditated  and  extemporaneous. 
They  are  a  fine  example  of  epistolary  style,  which  ought  to 
be  simple  and  rather  careless,  for  there  is  a  sort  of  careful 
carelessness. ' J 

THE  FIRST  ERUPTION  OF  VESUVIUS* 

(Pliny  the  Younger,  in  writing  to  the  historian  Tacitus  an  account  of  the 
death  of  his  uncle,  gives  this  description  of  the  first  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in 
historic  times ) 

My  uncle  was  at  Misenum,  where  he  was  in  personal 
command  of  the  fleet.  On  the  ninth  day  before  the  calends 
of  September  (24th  August,  79  A.D.)  at  about  the  seventh 
hour  (i  P.M.),  my  mother,  observing  the  appearance  of  a 
cloud  of  unusual  size  and  shape,  mentioned  it  to  him.  After 
reclining  in  the  sun,  he  had  taken  his  old  bath;  he  had  then 
again  lain  down,  and  after  a  slight  repast,  applied  himself  to 
his  studies.  Immediately  upon  hearing  her  remark  he  called 
for  his  shoes,  and  ascended  to  a  spot  from  which  he  could 
more  easily  observe  this  marvelous  phenomenon.  The  cloud 
was  to  be  seen  gradually  rising  upwards,  though  from  the 
great  distance  it  was  uncertain  from  which  of  the  mountains 
it  arose ;  it  was  afterwards,  however,  ascertained  to  be  Vesu- 


PUNY.  397 

vius.  In  appearance  and  shape  it  strongly  resembled  a  tree ; 
perhaps  it  was  more  like  a  pine  than  anything  else,  with  a 
stem  of  enormous  length,  reaching  upwards  to  the  heavens, 
and  then  spreading  out  in  a  number  of  branches  in  every  direc- 
tion. I  have  little  doubt  that  either  it  had  been  carried 
upwards  by  a  violent  gust  of  wind,  and  that  the  wind  dying 
away,  it  had  lost  its  compactness;  or  else  that,  being  over- 
come by  its  own  weight,  it  had  decreased  in  density  and 
become  extended  over  a  large  surface.  At  one  moment  it 
was  white,  at  another  dingy  and  spotted,  just  as  it  was  more 
or  less  charged  with  earth  or  with  ashes. 

To  a  man  so  eager  as  he  was  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge, 
this  appeared  to  be  a  most  singular  phenomenon,  and  one 
that  deserved  to  be  viewed  more  closely.  Accordingly  he 
gave  orders  for  a  light  Liburnian  vessel  to  be  got  ready,  and 
left  it  at  my  option  to  accompany  him.  To  this,  however,  I 
made  answer  that  I  should  prefer  continuing  my  studies ; 
and  as  it  so  happened  he  himself  had  just  given  me  some- 
thing to  write.  Taking  his  tablet  with  him  he  left  the  house. 
The  sailors  stationed  at  Retina,  alarmed  at  the  imminence  of 
the  danger — for  the  village  lay  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain, 
and  the  sole  escape  was  by  sea — sent  to  entreat  his  assistance 
in  rescuing  them  from  this  frightful  peril.  Upon  this  he 
instantly  changed  his  plans;  and  what  he  had  already  begun 
from  a  desire  for  knowledge,  he  determined  to  carry  out  as  a 
matter  of  duty.  He  had  the  galleys  put  to  sea  at  once,  and 
went  on  board  himself,  with  the  intention  of  rendering  assist- 
ance, not  only  to  Retina,  but  to  many  other  places  as  well ; 
for  the  whole  of  this  charming  coast  was  thickly  populated. 
Accordingly  he  made  all  possible  haste  toward  the  spot  from 
which  others  were  flying,  and  steered  straight  onwards  into 
the  very  midst  of  the  danger :  so  far,  indeed,  was  he  from  any 
sensation  of  fear,  that  he  remarked  and  had  noted  down  every 
movement  and  every  change  that  was  to  be  observed  in  the 
appearance  of  this  ominous  eruption.  The  ashes  were  now 
falling  fast  upon  the  vessels,  hotter  and  more  and  more 
thickfy  the  nearer  they  approached  the  shore;  showers  of 
pumice,  too,  intermingled  with  black  stones,  calcined  and 
broken  by  the  action  of  the  flames.  The  sea  suddenly  re- 


398  HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 

treated  from  the  shore,  where  the  debris  of  the  mountain 
rendered  landing  quite  impossible. 

My  uncle  then  hesitated  for  a  moment  whether  or  not  to 
turn  back,  as  the  pilot  strongly  advised  him  to  do.  But, 
after  deliberating,  he  cried,  "Fortune  favors  the  bold;  con- 
duct me  to  Pomponianus."  Pomponianus  was  then  at  Sta- 
biae,  a  place  that  lay  on  the  other  side  of  the  bay,  for  in  those 
parts  the  shores  are  winding,  and  as  they  gradually  trend 
away  the  sea  forms  a  number  of  little  creeks.  At  this  spot 
the  danger  of  being  overwhelmed  was  not  imminent  at  the 
time  ;  but  still  it  could  be  seen,  and  as  it  appeared  to  be  ap- 
proaching nearer  and  nearer,  Pomponianus  had  ordered  his 
baggage  on  board  the  ships,  determined  to  take  flight  if  the 
wind,  which  happened  to  be  blowing  the  other  way,  should 
chance  to  lull. 

The  wind,  being  in  this  quarter,  was  esteemed  favorable 
to  his  passage,  and  my  uncle  soon  arrived  at  Stabiae.  He 
embraced  his  anxious  friend,  and  did  his  best  to  restore  his 
courage ;  and  the  better  to  reassure  him  by  evidence  of  his 
own  sense  of  their  safety,  he  requested  the  servants  to  conduct 
him  to  the  bath.  After  bathing  he  took  his  place  at  table 
and  dined,  and  that,  too,  in  high  spirits,  or,  at  all  events, 
what  equally  showed  his  strength  of  mind,  with  every  out- 
ward appearance  of  being  so.  In  the  meantime  vast  sheets 
of  flame  and  large  bodies  of  fire  were  to  be  seen  arising  from 
Mount  Vesuvius ;  the  glare  and  brilliancy  of  which  were 
beheld  in  bolder  relief  as  the  shades  of  night  came  on  apace. 
My  uncle,  however,  in  order  to  calm  their  fears,  persisted  in 
saying  that  this  was  only  the  light  given  by  some  villages 
which  had  been  abandoned  to  the  flames  by  the  rustics  in 
their  alarm.  Soon  after  this  he  retired  to  rest,  and  fell  asleep : 
for  his  respiration,  which  with  him  was  heavy  and  loud,  in 
consequence  of  his  corpulence,  was  distinctly  heard  by  the 
servants  who  were  keeping  watch  at  the  door  of  the  apart- 
ment 

The  court-yard  which  led  to  his  apartment  had  now  be- 
come filled  with  cinders  and  pumice-stones  to  such  a  degree 
that  if  he  had  remained  any  longer  in  the  room,  it  would 
have  been  quite  impossible  for  him  to  leave  it.  On  being 


PLINY.  399 

aroused,  he  immediately  rejoined  Pomponianus  and  the  others, 
who  had  in  the  meanwhile  been  sitting  up.  They  then  con- 
sulted together  whether  it  would  be  better  to  remain  in  the 
house  or  take  their  chance  in  the  open  air,  as  the  building 
was  now  rocking  to  and  fro  from  the  violent  and  repeated 
shocks,  while  the  walls,  as  though  torn  up  from  their  very 
foundations,  seemed  to  be  at  one  moment  carried  in  this  direc- 
tion, at  another  in  that.  Having  adopted  the  latter  alterna- 
tive, they  were  now  alarmed  at  the  showers  of  light  calcined 
pumice-stones  that  were  falling  thick  about  them, — a  risk, 
however,  to  which,  as  a  choice  of  evils,  they  had  to  submit.  In 
taking  this  step  I  must  remark  that,  while  with  my  uncle  it 
was  reason  triumphing  over  reason,  with  the  rest  it  was  only 
one  fear  getting  the  better  of  the  other.  Taking  the  precau- 
tion of  placing  pillows  on  their  heads,  they  tied  them  on  with 
towels,  by  way  of  protection  against  the  falling  stones  and 
ashes. 

It  was  now  day  in  other  places,  though  there  it  was  still 
night,  more  dark  and  more  profound  than  any  ordinary  night. 
Torches,  however,  and  various  lights,  in  some  measure  served 
to  dispel  the  gloom.  It  was  then  determined  to  make  for  the 
shore,  and  to  ascertain  whether  the  sea  would  now  admit  of 
their  embarking.  It  was  found,  however,  to  be  still  too  stormy 
and  boisterous  to  allow  of  their  making  the  attempt.  Upon 
this  my  uncle  lay  down  on  a  sail  which  had  been  spread  for 
him,  and  more  than  once  asked  for  some  cold  water,  which  he 
drank;  very  soon,  however,  they  were  alarmed  by  the  flames 
and  the  sulphurous  smell  which  announced  their  approach, 
upon  which  the  others  at  once  took  to  flight,  while  my  uncle 
arose,  leaning  upon  two  of  the  servants  for  support.  Upon 
making  this  effort  he  instantly  fell  to  the  ground,  the  dense 
vapor  having,  I  imagine,  stopped  the  respiration  and  suffo- 
cated him;  for  his  chest  was  naturally  weak  and  contracted, 
and  often  troubled  with  violent  palpitations. 

When  day  was  at  last  restored,  the  third  after  the  closing 
one  of  his  existence,  his  body  was  found  untouched  and  with- 
out a  wound;  there  was  no  change  to  be  perceived  in  the 
clothes,  and  its  appearance  was  rather  that  of  a  person  asleep 
than  of  a  corpse.  In  the  meantime  my  mother  and  myself 


400 


HISTORIC  CHARACTERS  AND  FAMOUS  EVENTS. 


were  at  Misenum — that,  however,  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
story.  The  only  thing  I  shall  add  is  the  assurance  that  I 
have  truthfully  related  all  these  facts,  of  which  I  was  either 
an  eye-witness  myself,  or  heard  them  at  the  time  of  their 
occurrence.  Farewell. 

********** 

To  the  foregoing  contemporary  account  it  may  be  added 
that  in  this  eruption  both  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii  were 
buried;  the  former  under  a  mass  of  lava,  Pompeii  under 
showers  of  stones,  cinders  and  ashes.  The  ceilings  and  upper 
stories  of  the  houses,  being  chiefly  of  wood,  were  either  burned 
by  the  red-hot  stones  and  cinders  ejected  from  Vesuvius,  or 
were  broken  down  by  the  weight  of  matter  collected  on  the 
roofs.  It  would  appear  that  the  town  was  buried  by  succes- 
sive eruptions,  between  which  the  inhabitants  had  time  to 
come  and  revisit  their  half-ruined  habitations  and  recover 
some  of  their  property.  Successive  layers  of  volcanic  matter 
are  clearly  traced.  A  bed  of  soil  formed  itself  over  all  the 
town;  grass  grew  upon  it,  grain  was  sown  and  the  vine 
planted.  The  very  existence  of  Pompeii  was  forgotten  until 
1689,  when  in  digging,  some  indications  of  ruins  were  dis- 
covered. It  was  not  until  1755  that  the  systematic  excavations 
began,  which  have  brought  to  light  remarkable  exhibitions 
of  the  actual  surroundings  of  Roman  life  in  the  first  century. 

— SIR.  E.  BULWER  lyYTTON. 


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